History History

Bifaces, stone tools carved on both sides to sharpen their points, have been found at Nagaur in Marwar (Rajasthan). Acheulean culture gives way to the Middle Paleolithic. Stone tools became more numerous and refined.

During the Upper Paleolithic, settlements multiplied. Human groups formed small semi-nomadic communities of around a hundred people. The main sites were around river valleys, where water and food were available. Goose shells have been found in Rajasthan, attesting to the bird's adaptation to the region's climate.

The first major civilization in northern India flourished from 3300 BC onwards. The Harappan civilization took shape on the Indus plain (in Pakistan) and gradually occupied a large basin stretching to the foot of the Himalayas in the north and Gujarat in the south. The Harappan civilization is distinguished by its planned town planning, irrigation and water supply systems, brick-founded houses and elaborate craftsmanship. The civilization boasts 5 major urban centers, including Rakhigarhi (Haryana) and Dholavira (Gujarat), which will be listed by UNESCO in 2021.

At the same time, 3 civilizations succeeded one another on the central Malwa plateau, straddling the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. The Kayatha culture was the first known to practice agriculture, thanks to its advanced mastery of metallurgy and stone-cutting. The Ahar culture developed around the Banas river and its tributaries. It is distinguished by its red and black pottery decorated with white lines and dots. The Malwa culture is the most advanced of all, combining pastoralism and agriculture, urban planning of the main towns, exchanges with other communities and religious beliefs. Idols and altars have been found at several sites.

The Aryans, a people from Iran, arrived in northwest India. They gradually colonized Kashmir and the Punjab. They introduced a new religion enshrined in their sacred book, the Veda. In search of new pastures for their herds, they gradually descended to the Indo-Gangetic plain.

The Aryans colonize all of northern India. Small hereditary monarchies were established. Democracy was exercised through a council of elders(sabha) and a people's assembly(samiti). Women enjoyed the same rights as men. Leisure activities such as chariot racing and dice games were introduced. The development of sophisticated iron tools led to the expansion of agriculture.

The end of the Vedic period saw the emergence of the caste system. Varna divided society into 4 categories. Brahmins are priests and intellectuals (teachers, lawyers, etc.). The Kshatriyas are those responsible for administering and defending the population (kings, nobles and warriors). The Vaishyas include merchants, traders, farmers and shepherds. The Shudra caste is made up of serfs. Women lost their political rights and child marriages began.

Magadha is a region located in southern Bihar and east of the Gangetic plain. It was administered by three different dynasties, between 682 BC and 345 BC. The Mahajanapada, or "Great Kingdom", differed from the other 15 in northern India in its rejection of certain Vedic rites. Animal sacrifice and social organization were called into question. It was in this region that Jainism and Buddhism emerged. The Kshatriya caste was placed above the Brahmin caste. King Bimbisara, who reigned from 553 BC to 492 BC, became the first Buddhist king. It was during this period that the Mahābhārata, an epic poem that founded Indian culture, was written.

Major military movements in north-west India enabled the Nanda to occupy the Indo-Gangetic plain and a large portion of Madhya Pradesh as far as Gujarat. They seized the Magadha region in 345 BC, marking the apogee of their kingdom.

The political instability caused by the Nanda dynasty enabled Chandragupta Maurya to raise an army and defeat the Nanda empire. His power and military genius pushed him ever further west, toppling Alexander the Great's Satrappes in the Indus region, then the Seleucids, who occupied vast territories in Afghanistan and Baluchistan. The Maurya Empire is considered one of the most advanced of this period.

Bindusara succeeded his father and extended the empire's borders southwards, as far as Karnataka. The kingdom of Kalinga (present-day Odisha) resisted. Emperor Ashoka added it to the empire in 261 BC. After his conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka, a convert to Buddhism, renounced war and violence. He issued moral principles designed to solve complex social problems. These were engraved on pillars or large rocks scattered across the Empire. They are known as the Edicts of Ashoka. The empire enjoyed a period of flourishing stability.

Dasharatha succeeded his grandfather on the throne, but did not meet the same fate. Under his reign, the empire began to crumble, and former small kingdoms began to regain their strength. Pushyamitra took advantage of Birhadratha Maurya's assassination by one of his generals to seize the throne.

Pushyamitra founds the Shunga dynasty and builds an empire that roughly corresponds to the borders of Magadha. The abandonment of the Khyber Pass in the Pakistani Himalayas enabled the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius to conquer the remote western and northern parts of the former Maurya empire. For a century, the Indo-Greek empire and the Shunga dynasty shared northern India.

The Scythians, a people originally from the steppes of Eurasia, were driven out of northern Afghanistan. They moved south-east, replacing the Indo-Greeks, before being driven out in their turn by the Kushans. Their empire stretched from Uzbekistan to Gujarat and the Malwa plateau, in north-western India.

A new empire is formed in Magadha under Chandragupta. His successor, Samudragupta, added Kashmir, Rajasthan, Punjab, Malwa and Kalinga to his empire. By 415, the territory included the Himalayan foothills and Kashmir, the Indus valley, Gujarat, the Deccan plateau, the Ganges plain to its mouth and a wide coastal strip in Tamil Nadu.

The period of the Gupta Empire was synonymous with flourishing, particularly in the cultural sphere. Great artists produced major works in literature, painting, sculpture and architecture. The empire's influence extended to its trading partners throughout Southeast Asia. The decline began in 467. Continued attacks by the Huns caused the empire to collapse.

All that remains are the ashes of the Gupta empire and its formidable influence. The territory was broken up into a multitude of small kingdoms, each fighting the other. No single ruler emerged to create a new empire of any size. Hinduism and Vedic traditions were given a new lease of life in the face of Buddhism and Jainism. This religious impetus was reflected in a highly refined artistic production expressed in temples and statuary.

The first Muslim incursion into India was by Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, a military commander from Taif (Saudi Arabia). He seized Sindh (western Gujarat in Pakistan) in 711 and became its governor. In 1001, Mahmoud de Ghazni, governor of Khorassan (northern Iran) sacked part of Rajasthan. The region was regularly raided and pillaged, but remained in the hands of the Rajput rulers.

Muhammad of Ghor ruled Afghanistan and extended his conquests eastwards. He entered Gujarat in 1178 and advanced as far as Mount Abu (Rajasthan). In 1186, he occupied the Punjab and the Indus Valley. In 1192, he defeated the Rajput king Prithviraj Chauhan at Tarain in Rajasthan. He then entrusted his Indian territorial conquests to his slave-generals and concentrated on Central Asia. By 1206, the generals had advanced as far as Bengal.

On the death of Muhammad de Ghor, his generals divided the territory between themselves, further fuelling rivalries and tensions between their own successors. Northern India came under the control of the Sultanate of Delhi. During this period, five dynasties succeeded one another, constantly extending their hold on India. By 1335, the Delhi Sultanate was at its peak, led by the Tughlaq dynasty. They controlled almost all of present-day India and Pakistan, with the exception of Kalinga, Kerala and the Himalayan heights. The Sultanate declined under the next two dynasties, the Sayyid and the Lodi.

Babur, ruler of Fergana (Uzbekistan), paid tribute to his illustrious ancestors Timur and Genghis Khan by multiplying his conquests. In 1526, after subduing Samarkand and Afghanistan, he turned his attention to India. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat and founded the Mughal Empire. In the process, he succeeded in overthrowing Rajasthan. He died in Agra in 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun, who was challenged for the throne by his brothers. The sultan of Gujarat and Sher Shah Suri, who reigned in Bihar, took advantage of the internal quarrels to topple Humayun. Humayun fled to Persia in 1540, before reclaiming his empire 15 years later and expanding his territory. He died in 1556 from a fall down the stairs.

Jahangir inherited a relatively consolidated empire, and his reign was marked more by commercial and artistic development than military conquest. Nevertheless, he succeeded in subjugating the Mewar kingdom to Rajasthan once and for all. In 1616, he received the first British ambassador of the East India Company (EIC), Sir Thomas Roe, who tried unsuccessfully to obtain permission to set up a warehouse in Surat (Gujarat). Residing at court for 3 years, Roe introduced the emperor to the pleasures of wine. The emperor, a passionate painter, encouraged the production of portraits and miniatures, which he had carefully catalogued, leaving a precious legacy for future generations.

When Prince Khurram acceded to the throne, he humbly took the name of "King of the World", Shah Jahan. He demonstrated his qualities as a military leader by taking an active part in the fall of the Mewar king in 1615. He inherited an incredibly rich empire, and it was during his reign that Mughal art reached its apogee. He established a new capital in Delhi and began construction of the Red Fort and Jama Masjid. He also built the Red Fort in Agra, and above all the Taj Mahal, a white marble mausoleum in memory of his favorite wife.

Aurangzeb came to the throne after imprisoning his father Shah Jahan in his final days. He was renowned for his religious intolerance, introducing Sharia law, destroying Hindu temples, forcibly converting and arbitrarily executing his opponents. He also reintroduced 80 taxes, some of which applied only to non-Muslims. Aurangzeb's policies led to uprisings by allied princes and kings. Military campaigns resumed, and the emperor succeeded in subduing almost all Indian territory, including the south.

After a century and a half of glorious reign, expansion and conquest, and unprecedented wealth, the Mughal Empire was losing its splendor. Fratricidal struggles for succession to the throne, common in the Muslim world where there was no established order, shook the foundations of the empire. Six rulers succeeded each other in 12 years. The English took advantage of this instability to strengthen their commercial and military presence. In 1717, the CIO finally obtained a residence and free trade permit and settled in Bengal.

The instability caused by Aurangzeb's authoritarian rule continued to grow. Revolts and declarations of autonomy followed one another in Rajasthan, Bengal, Bundelkhand and Panna (Madhya Pradesh). The Marathas took over the southern territories, while the Iranian emperor Nader Shah won the decisive battle of Karnal (Haryana) and sacked Delhi.

The CIO wins the Battle of Plassey in 1757 against the Nawab of Bengal, supported by the French army. A second battle at Buxar (Bihar) strengthened its hold in northern India. Emperor Shah Alam II appoints Robert Clive Governor of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. The CIO now controlled large swathes of territory, and the emperors who succeeded each other as rulers of the Indian empire were in fact its patrons.

The IOC manages commercial operations on behalf of the English Crown, and has an army to "protect its operations". In reality, it waged wars of territorial expansion. In 1856, it administered the North-Western provinces of Delhi, Assam, Punjab and Kashmir. The IOC also concluded treaties of economic domination with the princes of numerous independent states. In return, it guaranteed security and territorial integrity. By the end of the ^19th century, these treaties covered two-thirds of India's territory.

A revolt broke out in the army ranks in Meerut (Uttar Pradesh), led by Mangal Pandey. The new cartridges supplied by the IOC are said to be greased with cow or pig tallow. The cow is a sacred animal for Hindus. Pigs are impure for Muslims. Rumors spread like wildfire through the ranks. The soldiers mutinied, massacred the British colonists and set out for Delhi. The revolt spreads to most of northern India.

The CIO struggled to suppress the Cipaye revolt. It succeeded only with the help of the fierce Sikh warriors of the Punjab, at the cost of a year's fierce fighting and many deaths. Emperor Bahadur Shah II, who had sided with the Cipayes, took refuge in Rangoon (Burma). The British Crown, exasperated by the CIO's inability to control such a vast territory, placed India under its direct tutelage.

The British reorganized the army, integrating more natives into its ranks and creating all-Indian regiments. The princes who had not taken part in the Revolt were integrated into the Anglo-Indian political system. They benefited from the pax britannica, and the most skilful became incredibly wealthy. Some built unheard-of palaces, commissioned from renowned British architects. The British undertook not to initiate major social reforms in a society with deep-rooted, rigid traditions and hostility to change.

Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India in a country undergoing major structural change. The road and rail network was extended to bring goods to the ports more quickly. Irrigation canals were built to develop agriculture, although this did not prevent a major famine in 1878.

An affluent middle class emerges. Some of its children were admitted to British-founded schools and universities in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay. Despite the appearance of assimilation, the inequalities between the British and Indians only became more glaring. Racial discrimination, the enlistment of Indian troops in conflicts waged by the Crown and the muzzling of the local press only served to exacerbate a feeling of injustice.

In 1883, Sir Ilbert tried to pass a law authorizing Indian magistrates to prosecute British subjects in India. The measure caused a stir in London and exacerbated racial tensions. It was not passed until 1884, when it was practically rendered meaningless. India's highly educated middle class took up the debate and turned it into a political cause. The Indian National Congress was founded on December 28, 1885. Founded by 70 members, it began by debating the Raj's policies in India, and gradually came to the conclusion that the British were plundering the country's wealth.

The Congress party took shape and proposed social reforms, such as allowing Hindu widows to remarry. A split occurred within the party, with the more extreme members criticizing the social reformers for allowing themselves to be distracted from their primary objective: nationalism. On the British side, Viceroy Lord Curzon undertook reforms on all fronts: regional planning, excavation and preservation of archaeological sites, debt relief for peasants, stabilization of the currency, and so on.

Lord Curzon undertakes the partition of Bengal, India's largest state. He created the provinces of East Bengal and Assam, with a Muslim majority, and West Bengal, with a Hindu majority. This strategy, designed to weaken the nationalist movement, proved a total failure. The Muslims organized politically and founded the Muslim League party in December 1906 in Dhaka.

A law opens up seats for Indian representatives on national and provincial councils. Muslims are given twice as many seats as Hindus. In 1911, King George V was enthroned Emperor of India in Delhi. He announced the reunification of Bengal and the transfer of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi. Revolutionary groups took action, but were immediately suppressed with the backing of Indian politicians opposed to violence.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India after spending several years in South Africa. It was there that he forged his technique of satyagraha, active non-violent resistance. In 1917, he joined a movement of discontented peasants in Bihar and launched his first satyagraha on Indian soil. His vision of empowerment through education was not yet widely embraced by the peasants.

A project is under study to give Indians a greater role in the governance of the country. A law was passed in December 1919. It increased the number of indigenous representatives in national and provincial assemblies. On April 13 1919, a pacifist demonstration was held in Amritsar. The army cornered the demonstrators and fired on sight. The government admitted 379 dead and 1,100 wounded, three times as many according to the Congress party. The Amritsar massacre confirmed in Indian public opinion the need for the British to leave.

The Congress stepped up pressure on the British government for independence. In 1930, Gandhi launched a campaign of non-cooperation, calling on civil servants to resign from the administration. In 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru delivers the Purna Swaraj speech, "total independence", in Lahore. At the same time, Gandhi began a 387 km march across Gujarat. On arrival, he contravened the British Salt Monopoly Act. Peaceful acts of civil disobedience followed throughout the country. Gandhi was arrested, then released in 1931 to begin autonomy negotiations in London.

The round-table discussions resulted in a law authorizing the constitution of legislative assemblies in all Indian provinces and the creation of a central government. The Congress party wins a landslide victory in the first regional elections. The result surprised the British authorities, who had seen the party as an elitist gathering of Indians from the intellectual classes.

As war broke out once again in Europe, Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war, without consulting India's political leaders, provoking an outcry. Worried about the popularity of the Congress, the Muslim League passed a resolution in Lahore on March 24, 1940, calling for the creation of a sovereign Muslim state, autonomous and independent of the Hindu entity. In July 1942, the Congress party demanded the immediate departure of the British and launched the "Leave India" protest movement. On August 8, the Raj had all Congress political leaders arrested and imprisoned until 1945.

The Muslim League and the Congress party disagreed about the partition of India. On August 16, 1946, League leader Jinnah proclaimed Direct Action Day, aimed at securing an independent Muslim homeland. This declaration set off a firestorm between Hindus and Muslims. The British announced India's independence the following year, with the result that communal tensions increased. In June 1947, the Muslim League, Congress, the Untouchables' representative and the Sikhs' representative reached a partition agreement, much to Gandhi's dismay.

Mountbatten transfers power to Muhammad Ali Jinnah in Karachi on August 14 and to Jawaharlal Nehru in Delhi on August 15. The country was divided into the Dominion of Pakistan (which included East Bengal) and the Dominion of India. The emergency of independence displaces 20 million people. This exodus is accompanied by massacres that leave between 250,000 and 500,000 dead.

One by one, the princely states rallied to the Indian Union. Only Kashmir hesitated. This Muslim-majority state is under the authority of a Hindu prince. The latter dithered, hoping to gain independence and belong to neither India nor Pakistan. The population turned against the maharaja. An agreement is reached with Nehru, and Kashmir opts for India with the guarantee of a special status granting it greater autonomy. The country's Constitution came into force on January 26, 1950, creating a Federal Union with a parliamentary system. The history of North India merges with that of India.

The first elections were held in 1952, confirming Nehru as the country's leader. The Prime Minister committed India to modernization. This involved implementing five-year plans to develop industry and infrastructure. He undertook a vast land redistribution reform, which met with fierce opposition from the rural elite. On the international stage, he advocated non-alignment, refusing to take sides between the West and the USSR. In 1961, he brought the army into Goa, a Portuguese territory outside the Union, and annexed it. The same year, he reinforced military outposts in the Himalayas, in areas disputed with China. At the end of 1962, the People's Republic attacked an India ill-prepared for war. After a month of conflict, India capitulated and ceded parts of its territory in the north of the country. Physically weakened, Nehru died on May 27, 1964.

The 1966 elections were again won by the Congress party, this time led by Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru's daughter. She proceeded to nationalize the country's largest banks and abolished the annuities paid to the maharajas of the princely states. In 1971, she launched the "Green Revolution" to ensure the country's food security. These popular reforms led to a resounding victory in the 1972 elections. The 1973 oil crisis triggered a serious inflationary crisis, and Indira Gandhi placed the country under a state of emergency in 1975, in order to muzzle the opposition. The following year, she planned a reform of the Constitution, while her son Sanjay was involved in a campaign of birth control and forced sterilization that caused a wave of unpopularity.

Indira Gandhi pursued her policy of reform, while an increasingly virulent opposition threatened her position. In 1984, she ordered the army to enter the Sikh temple in Amritsar, where terrorists had retreated. Operation Blue Star claimed 1,000 victims, almost completely destroyed the temple grounds and aroused the ire of the Sikhs. They would never forgive their Prime Minister for having the army intervene in their most sacred temple. On October 31, Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two Sikh men, members of her inner circle.

Rajiv Gandhi succeeds his mother as leader of the Congress party, then of the country. He faced sedition movements in Punjab and Assam, which he managed to quell. He brought the Indian army into the guerrilla war between Tamils and Sinhalese in Sri Lanka. A peace agreement was soon reached, but the guerrilla war continued. Internally, the Congress party faced growing accusations of corruption. Weakened, it lost the 1989 elections. A coalition between the BJP, the Hindu nationalist party, and a former Congressman, V.P. Singh, took power. It collapsed 2 years later and new elections were called. Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated by a Tamil nationalist during a campaign rally. The elections are won by Rao, the new leader of the Congress party.

Rao began a series of economic reforms designed to save India from bankruptcy. He eased controls on private enterprise and authorized foreign investment. These reforms paid off, putting the country back on track. Growth exploded, approaching 2 digits. Despite this, Rao lost the next elections, as his party was plagued by corruption scandals. A major political crisis ensued, with a succession of short-lived coalition governments. During this period, India joined the closed circle of nuclear powers, rekindling tensions with Pakistan.

In 2003, a ceasefire was signed with Pakistan and a process of normalization of relations began. Relations with China also improved, and economic agreements were signed. The Congress party returned to power in 2004. This was the period when Al-Qaeda shook the world and 3 major attacks took place in India, without rekindling tensions between Hindu and Muslim communities. On the other hand, Kashmir continues to poison relations between India and Pakistan. A succession of provocations, attacks and bombings prevent a lasting peace.

A resounding victory against corruption brought the BJP to power. Narendra Modi, a hard-line Hindu nationalist, became Prime Minister, causing a stir in the international community. His face is displayed in 4x3s all over the country, promoting hygiene campaigns and aid for the purchase of basic necessities for the poorest. Major regional development projects were launched, including the construction of freeways and a high-speed rail link between Mumbai and Ahmedabad. Modi turns his back on a protectionist social policy to bring India into the capitalist mainstream.

The BJP wins the 2019 elections, with less fanfare. The campaign is conducted against a backdrop of suspected corruption in the award of an arms deal with France. Modi's government multiplies provocations against the Muslim community. One of its first measures is to abolish the special status of Kashmir. The region was closed off for many months, the Internet was cut off and many opponents were thrown into prison. Modi attempts to launch a major reform of the agrarian system, but fails after farmers from all over the country occupy Delhi for several months. The Covid epidemic plunges the most precarious section of the population into unbearable misery. From one day to the next, the country is placed under confinement for 7 months. India reopened its borders at the end of 2021 and economic growth resumed.