Pre-colonial period from 30,000 BC to 1788: the habitat of the Aborigines and the first structures
Originating from Asia 40,000 years ago, the Aborigines were the first people to live on Australian soil. Before colonization at the end of the 13th century, hundreds of semi-nomadic tribes moved across this immense territory according to the seasons and their need for food. There are many similarities between Aboriginal communities, but each speaks its own language, has its own customs and its own type of habitat. Preferring temporary dwellings, few Aborigines were builders, hence the low number of architectural remains. The first "humpy" or "gunya" dwellings discovered by settlers in the Sydney region are simple shelters arranged in a semicircle with a tree serving as the main support. They are roofed with bark, grass or reeds. As exploration of the continent progressed, other "wiltja"-type structures were discovered on the Atherton Plateau in the Australian Cordillera in northern Queensland. Open and circular, these huts enabled the Aborigines to protect themselves from the sun. Depending on the region and the raw material available, the shelters are different. In Arnhem Land, in northern Australia, we find lean-tos and raised wooden platforms. Later, it was established that a few sedentary tribes, isolated from the deserts of the west, had designed permanent stone huts on the banks of the Darling River and built ingenious stone fish traps to feed themselves.
The difficult beginnings of the little penal colony. After 8 months at sea and 24,000 km, on January 26, 1788, the British "First Fleet" landed at Port Jackson on Australia's southeast coast. 11 ships docked in New South Wales. In their holds, 1,200 European immigrants now bound by the same destiny: to establish the first permanent colony in Sydney. More than half of these settlers were convicts, delinquents sentenced by the British justice system and crammed into hulks (floating prisons) on the Thames. This was the beginning of a vast plan to deport prisoners that would last almost a century. Between 1788 and 1868, 162,000 convicts were sent to Australia by the Crown in the service of its colonial expansion. In its early days, Sydney was little more than a vast canvas camp. The poor quality of the few imported tools, soon compounded by a shortage of nails, made construction impossible. Famine and epidemics threatened the small colony. The Aborigines' incomprehension was aroused by the whites who were uprooting trees and ripping up the sacred land of their ancestors. In 1835, 47 years after the arrival of the first fleet, Governor Richard Bourke proclaimed the legal principle of "terra nullius" in Australian law. The British Crown took possession of the land to the detriment of the original inhabitants, who were gradually dispossessed.
Old Colonial Period: 1788-1840
Georgian-style cottages. The settlers perfected their woodworking skills. The first shelters erected were " wattle and daub ", basic dwellings made of woven wooden rafters (mainly acacia branches) covered with dried mud. A technique imported from Great Britain. The spaces between the assembled logs are filled with clay mixed with animal hair. The interior is then lined with newspaper. In the first houses, the windows were small. When no glazing is installed, blinds or oiled calico are stretched across the openings during the winter. Buildings constructed in the first fifty years of colonization were inspired by the Georgian style. This style, which corresponds to the era of King George of England (1714-1830), is characterized by simplicity, proportion and balance. This type of unadorned architecture is easy to build. Settlers gradually discovered new resources enabling them to design more substantial buildings. Clay collected from the bays around Port Jackson was used to make the first bricks. These were assembled with lime and cement obtained by crushing oyster shells. The manufacture of shingles (tile-shaped planks) using particularly resistant woods enabled the design of solid roofs for dwellings still in place today, such as that of Elizabeth Farm, Australia's oldest farmhouse (now a museum). It was soberly but elegantly designed in 1793 on the outskirts of Sydney by John Macarthur, a rebellious settler who made his fortune in wool and rum. The arrival of corrugated iron (invented in England in 1829) revolutionized Australian roofing. Lightweight, inexpensive and weather-resistant, this material became extremely common in the manufacture of " tin roofs " for large cottages.
Building a city and a society. Francis Greenway was the colony's first convict architect. After going bankrupt in London, he pleaded guilty to forgery. Sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment, he preferred hard labor in Australia to overcrowded prisons in England. Recommended for the quality of his work, he became assistant to Lachlan Macquarie, Governor of New South Wales between 1810 and 1821, whose role in the social, economic and architectural development of Australian society was paramount. Governor Macquarie is considered the first builder of the future Australian nation, the man who transformed the penal colony into a free colony in the early 19th century. At his request, Francis Greenway designed some 50 sober, classical buildings in the center of Sydney, which can still be seen today. Two are located in the historic Macquarie Street district. The Hyde Park Barracks, one of the oldest, built in 1818, has had several lives and bears witness to Sydney's rapid development. Originally a dormitory for hundreds of convicts, it later housed destitute women. Its top floor was transformed into a psychiatric hospital. Then its vast dormitories were divided into a labyrinth of government offices. Now it's a museum. This simple, well-proportioned, solid three-storey building with its shingled roof made Francis Greenway a free man. The Governor was so impressed by his design that he gave him his freedom. Francis Greenway's masterpiece remains Saint James Church near Hyde Park Barracks. It is the oldest Anglican parish church. The Reverend William Cowper, anxious to bring morality to convicts, delivered his first sermon here in January 1822. The church has remained open ever since. Its organ, installed in 1827, is still in working order. Built during a period of intense Protestant revival, when most churches were built in a neo-Gothic style, St James proudly displays its Georgian details: its coffered ceiling, painted walls and 52-metre copper bell tower. The Port Arthur penal colony in Tasmania, another UNESCO World Heritage Site, remains one of the most impressive architectural testimonies to penal colonization. Of the 74,000 convicts sent to Australia, 12,500 (the most dangerous) were locked up in this Australian Alcatraz between 1833 and 1850. The panoptic architecture and penal theories of British philosopher and jurist Jeremy Bentham guided the design of this multi-storey prison, an unassailable fortress where you can see without being seen. Bentham believed that increased security inside and outside the building, rules (no mistreatment of prisoners is tolerated) and inmate quotas would improve prison conditions and discourage escapes.
Victorian Period: 1840-1890
The name of this period refers to the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). The Victorian style left its mark on the architecture of Australian cities, to such an extent that in the 19th century, Melbourne, along with London, New York and Chicago, was one of the largest Victorian cities. This period is divided into three intermediate periods: Early, Mid and Late Victorian. All of them feature a wide variety of styles (over fifteen). Architects drew on British, Italian, French and Egyptian influences. They reinvented the Middle Ages with romantic features: the buildings resemble medieval castles with turrets, ramparts, rich ornamentation and slate roofs. These works reflect the progress and confidence of the young colonies. For large religious buildings and those representing power, the most successful aspect of the Victorian style is in this continuation of the Gothic Revival, as witnessed by St Francis Xavier's Cathedral in Adelaide, Australia's oldest Catholic cathedral. Although construction began in 1851, it was not completed until 1996. Its superb stained glass windows, orange tones and 36-metre-high steeple make it one of the country's neo-Gothic masterpieces. Of particular note on the west side of the church is the bronze statue of Mary Mackillop (installed in 2009), Australia's first saint, who devoted her life to educating the poor. She is shown holding the hands of a little girl and a young Aboriginal boy. Of all the colonies of the British Empire, Melbourne was the site of the largest Governor's residence. Regency in style, with its Italian influences, cream color and Palladian features, Government House bears a striking resemblance to Osborne House, Queen Victoria's summer residence on the Isle of Wight. The property comprises 3 distinct parts: the state apartments, the private apartments and the ballroom. The tower, with its belvedere and ornate cornice, is the focal point of the building. It is 44 metres high and can be seen from miles away. The contrast between Government House and the modest prefabricated home of the first governor, Charles Joseph La Trobe, is striking. Government House was built by William Wardell, a great British architect whose Gothic Revival elegance and versatility helped shape Melbourne and Sydney. Among the most distinguished 19th-century buildings he designed were St Patrick's Cathedral and the Gothic Bank in Melbourne, and St Mary's Cathedral (unfinished) and St John's College University in Sydney.
1850: The gold rush. The discovery of gold in the 1850s brought immense prosperity to the colonies. It attracted thousands of immigrants to the south of the continent. In less than 10 years, Victoria's population soared from 70,000 to over 500,000. "Wonderful Melbourne" (its nickname after becoming the second most prosperous city in the British Empire after London in 40 years) and its port became a must. A new bourgeoisie was emerging. They wanted homes, public buildings and towns to be proud of, in keeping with their new-found wealth. The austerity of Georgian buildings gave way to sophisticated, neo-Gothic-inspired edifices and new architectural styles, particularly in Victoria. The " Boom Style ", a slightly wacky neo-Gothic style with fishnet motifs, small towers and columns, is all the rage in Victoria. Sydney, as well as Melbourne and other towns such as Ballarat and Bendigo, gradually changed their appearance.
Joseph Reed is world-renowned for his design of the Royal Exhibition Building for the 1880 World's Fair in Melbourne, which stands at the heart of the superb Carlton Gardens. The brick, wood, steel and slate Royal Palace is typical of exhibition buildings of the period. Influenced by Byzantine, Romanesque, Lombard and Italian Renaissance architecture, its dome was inspired by that of Florence Cathedral. The Carlton gardens, lakes and fountains are part of the overall design of the site, which has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2004.
Federation Period: 1890-1915
On January1, 1901, the six colonies, with a population of 3.8 million, federated. Without relinquishing its links with the Crown, Australia became independent. This architectural period refers to the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia. The Federation style is generally less ornate than the Victorian style to which it gradually succeeded. It has many similarities with the English Edwardian style of the same period, which is rarely used in Australia. There are a dozen Federation styles. Due to the extreme conditions of the Australian climate, local architectural specificities emerge: Queenslander houses in the humid tropics, Woolsheds in the Australian countryside and beach houses on the coast. In the fertile lands of Queensland, Queenslanders (sometimes called Federation Filigree) are built on the model of houses in neighboring Asia. These farmhouses, built on wooden stumps or stilts, reach heights of up to six meters and are able to withstand heat and humidity. Their elevated design protects them from flooding, cools the air under the floor and protects them from snakes. Wide verandas with low roofs surround the rooms, providing shade and cross-ventilation thanks to the house's high roof. Queensland houses are easy to renovate and transport. Made of wood, they can be sawn and loaded onto a truck before being reassembled elsewhere to suit the needs of workers in the mining camps.
Inter-War Period: 1915-1940
This period saw the development of the influence of American architecture, with some great achievements. The creation of Canberra, led by the visionary but misunderstood Walter Burley Griffin, began in 1913. Under his impetus and highly personal style, which blended modern and ancient, East and West, Canberra became an administrative, orderly and green city, marking the first step in the country's urban development. Evoking a spider's web, the concentric network of the "ideal city" imagined by Walter Burley Griffin gradually took shape. French gardens and lakes were created. In 1927, John Smith Murdoch, known for his austerity and respect for budgets, had to quickly design a building to house the Parliament of Australia's new capital. The Old Parliament would be simple: a temporary building. Inaugurated in 1927, The Old Parliament, with its classical appearance and uncluttered style, remained in use until 1988. It was here that Australia's greatest decisions were taken. Classified as a national monument for its heritage value, the Old Parliament was not demolished, and now houses the Museum of Australian Democracy (MoAD).
In Sydney and Melbourne, buildings (Skyscraper Gothic, Chicagoesque, Art Deco) are multiplying. The Grace Building in Sydney, designed by Morrow & Gordon in 1928 and inspired by the neo-Gothic Chicago Tribune Tower, is perhaps the best example of a skyscraper combining Gothic and Art Deco. Its 65-metre tower brought modernity to the city. The AWA Tower (AWA stands for Amalgamated Wireless Australasia), also designed by Morrow & Gordon in 1939, was Sydney's tallest building until the 1960s. This Art Deco communications tower features 15 storeys of offices topped by a 46-metre radio transmitter, a miniature copy of the Eiffel Tower. Styles specific to North and Central America(Spanish Mission, Californian Bungalow) became very popular.
Post-War Period: 1940-1960
During this period, several styles(Stripped Classical, Ecclesiastical...) predominated in the heart of major cities, including the International Style. Many Victorian-era buildings were demolished to make way for more modern architecture in tune with Australia's baby boom. The upheaval was radical, and the city centers of Melbourne and Sydney were quickly compared to New York and Chicago. The post-war period was also that of the " Australian Dream ": every family wanted its own house, garden with barbecue, clothes line (the iconic hills hoist) and Victa lawnmower. To meet growing demand, and because of labor shortages and post-war rationing, houses were built on a large scale using cheap materials. Housing estates, again with a very American architectural style(L-Shape, Triple Front, Ranch Style) spread. From 1950 onwards, the economic situation improved. Modern architecture and the international style gradually took hold. Steel, reinforced concrete and glass office buildings began to appear in cities across the country. In 1957, when Jorn Utzon won the competition to build the Sydney Opera House, he was an almost unknown 38-year-old Danish architect. Work began in 1959, but there were numerous problems between Jorn Utzon and the New South Wales government. He abandoned the project in 1965 and left Australia without seeing the completion of his work. The building then underwent numerous modifications by architects Peter Hall, David Littlemore and Lionel Todd. The building cost 102 million dollars (instead of the 7 million originally announced) and was largely financed by a state lottery. Built on a former Aboriginal site (Bennelong Point) and magnificently integrated into Sydney Harbour, the Opera House, inaugurated by Queen Elizabeth II on October 23, 1973, has become the pride and symbol of Sydney. With its roaring sails and intertwining curves, this 185-metre-long, 120-metre-wide urban sculpture is one of the most iconic in the world. Its white corolla of over a million self-cleaning ceramics rests on 2,194 concrete blocks held together by 350 kilometers of steel cables. Wishing to reconcile itself with the creator of one of architecture's most beautiful masterpieces, in 1999 the management of the Opera House commissioned Utzon & Associated to restore the opera house. In 2007, the Sydney Opera House was inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List.
Late Twentieth Century: 1960-2000
The second half of the twentieth century saw the development of much more personal styles and an openness to multiculturalism and global architecture(Brutalist, Late Modern, Structural, Post Modern...). With their futuristic design and minimalist aesthetic, Canberra's institutional buildings, such as the National Library in 1960 and the NationalGallery in 1967, are perfect examples of modernism. Inaugurated in 1988 by Queen Elizabeth II, the Parliament Building, designed by New York architects Mitchell & Giurgola, stands out for its symbolic power. While most of its buildings are buried in the ground, Parliament seems to rise from Capitol Hill as if to embody the progression of Australian society. Its forecourt, covered with a mosaic designed by Aboriginal artist Kumantye Jagamara, recalls the beginnings of Australia. The building is topped by a huge spire bearing the national flag. Innovative architects emerge to highlight the identity of their country or region(Sydney Regional, Perth Regional, Adelaide Regional) or even an era (1970's, 1980's, Australian Nostalgic, Immigrants' Nostalgic). Surrounding nature and Aboriginal art become a major source of inspiration, such as the Uluru Kata-Tjuta Cultural Centre in the middle of the desert, designed in 1995 by Gregory Burgess, an architect specializing in the design of buildings for the Aboriginal community. Built in an organic style using dried mud bricks, the two structures of this Aboriginal cultural center represent two snakes. Gregory Burgess also designed the superb Burraworin House (1999), a solar-powered wooden house based on the homestead model.
Twenty First Century
Although the American influence is ever-present, a wide range of innovative, multicultural Australian architects is asserting itself. These include Howard Ragatt, designer of Canberra's National Museum of Australia (Post Modern Style), inaugurated in 2001, and Nonda Katsalidis, who designed the magnificent Eureka Skydeck 88 (2006 - Modern Style), which towers 297 m above Melbourne's Southbank complex. Last but not least, Glenn Murcutt, a pioneer of green architecture. A loner who designs minimalist yet refined rural houses by hand, sublimating simple materials such as wood and sheet metal. He is the only Australian winner of the prestigious Pritzker Prize, which he won in 2002 for the quality of his innovative, aesthetic and environmentally-friendly homes.
Melbourne and Sydney, the two rivals
They share the largest number of skyscrapers in Australia. In 1880, the Yorkshire Brewery was the first building constructed in Melbourne. Today, this 8-storey building in the Second Empire style is part of the city's heritage. Despite the technical prowess developed at the end of the 19th century, the State of Victoria prohibited the construction of towers over 40 m from 1916 to 1957. This was due to fears of fires that were impossible to control. Shortly after this law was repealed, ICI House (1958), now Orica House, proudly displayed its 20 storeys, standing 81 m above the ground. Completed in 2006, the 297-metre-high Eureka Tower was Melbourne's tallest skyscraper until 2019. But it was dethroned in 2020 by the 316-metre, 100-storey Australia 108.
In Sydney, the first building to be constructed was the Culwulla Chambers in 1912. It measures 50 metres and has 14 storeys. As in Melbourne, an amendment made it necessary to wait until 1950 before other buildings in the city were allowed to exceed 45 meters. In 1962, the AMP Building, 115 m high with 26 floors of office space, became Sydney's first "real" skyscraper. The Sydney Skyline is a success story, with towers including The Sydney Tower (305 m), completed in 1981, and Chiffley Tower, which until 2019 was the tallest building at 244 m, before being dethroned in 2020 by Crown Sydney (271 m). The Salesforce Tower (263 m) is a commercial building completed in 2022.
Australia's tallest skyscraper is located in Gold Coast, Queensland. The Q1 Tower (Queensland number one), built in 2005 at 323 m, was also the tallest building in the southern hemisphere before the inauguration of the Autograph Tower (382 m) in Jakarta in 2022.
