Mythology and religion
In ancient Greece, mythology and religion were intimately linked. But religion was more than just mythology
Origins. Mythology took shape during the "Dark Centuries", between the 12th and 8th centuries BC. The inhabitants then found themselves confronted with the remains of the disappeared Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations. With no explanation in front of the ruins of the temples and the "cyclopean" walls of their predecessors, they invent the founding stories of the new civilization of the cities
Polytheism. Common to all cities, the Greek religion was based on polytheism: the belief in several gods both "specialized" (the sea for Poseidon, the war for Ares ...) and close to humans, since having their appearance, qualities and defects and living among them. Mythology thus constituted one of the facets of religion, serving in particular to illustrate the life of the gods
Rites. Religion was structured around the concepts of piety (and not faith) and ungodliness, the sacred, the pure and the impure. It really had neither dogma nor clergy, but intercessors such as oracles. Slaves and citizens were free to believe or not. However, the rites organized in honor of the gods were one of the keys to civic life, especially the ceremonies dedicated to the protective divinity of each city
Reason. Did the Greeks believe in their mythology? All these stories were probably not taken literally. For the Ancients also believed in logos, "reason". Greece was thus at the forefront of the development of philosophy and science. From the 7th century BC, with Plato, Socrates and Aristotle, Archimedes, Strabo and Anaximander, a revolution in the field of thought took place. However, mythology was not called into question, it remained a common base, probably occupying a more important place in culture and civic life than in beliefs.
Primordial deities
These are the first gods, those who were for the Greeks at the origin of life and the gods of Olympus.
Chaos. It is the first form of life. And as its name does not indicate, Chaos orders the world by creating the first five deities: Gaia (Earth), Erebus (the Underworld), Nyx (the Night), Eros (Love) and Tartarus (the Underworld).
Gaia and Ouranos. Gaia is the Earth goddess, the Mother goddess. From her name comes "geography" or "geology". She gives birth to four deities, including Ouranos, the Sky. Moreover, "sky" is always said ouranos in Greek.
Titans. Gaia united with her son Ouranos to give birth to the Titans, deities with a human face. Located on Mount Othrys (1,726 m above sea level, in central Greece), they are led by the youngest of them, Cronos, who rules the Earth with his sister and wife Rhea. In late antiquity, Cronos will be confused with Chronos, the primordial god governing Time
Cyclops and Hecatonchires. From the incest of Gaia and Ouranos are also born six deformed children: the Cyclops, three giants with only one eye and mastering lightning, and the Hecatonchires, three other brothers with 100 hands and 50 heads. But Ouranos fears his offspring, devours some of them and locks up Cyclops and Hecatonchires in the Underworld
Revolt of Cronos and war of the Titans. These two episodes have marked the Greco-Roman art. They are at the origin of the reign of the gods of Olympus. Ouranos rules the universe with cruelty. His son Cronos rebels, frees his brothers Cyclops and Hecatonchires, then cuts off his father's sex. From the flow of blood and semen are born the Giants and Aphrodite. Cronos takes power with the Titans. Just as tyrannical as his father, he provokes the revolt of his children led by Zeus and helped by the Cyclops, the Giants and the Hecatonchires. War breaks out. Cronos and the Titans, defeated, are sent to the Underworld and Zeus imposes himself.
Gods of Olympus
The Titans leave behind them an innumerable progeny. A pantheon dominated by twelve deities who live on Mount Olympus, the highest point of Greece (2,917 m), south of Thessaloniki
Zeus. His cult is proven in Crete since the Minoan period, then spreads after the Dark Ages. Son of Cronos and Rhea, Zeus (Jupiter for the Romans) is the supreme god. His Greek name (Dias) evokes the "luminous sky" because he holds the power of lightning transmitted by the Cyclops. Protector, purifier and benefactor, he is feared for his anger (storms, tempests, etc.). He is honored during sacrificial festivals, the Diasia, as well as in the sanctuaries of Dodonne (Epirus) or Siwa (Egypt). Married successively to his sisters Hestia, Demeter, then Hera, he collected mistresses. From his unions are born many gods and heroes
Hera. The Juno of the Romans is the queen of the gods, goddess of Marriage, Fertility and Childbirth. Swallowed by her father Cronos, Hera was freed by her brother Zeus and married him to sit next to him on the Olympus. But she had a stormy relationship with her fickle husband, trying for a while to kill Apollo and Artemis born from a bed with Leto or giving birth to Hephaestus alone to defy Zeus. Embodying jealousy, she was nevertheless loved by the Greeks who dedicated many temples to her as well as the Heraia, games reserved to women
Poseidon. God of the Seas, Oceans, Springs and Earthquakes, Poseidon (Neptune in Rome) is son of Cronos and Rhea. Jealous of Athena, he struck Athens with his devastating trident, then allied himself with her against Zeus. He will be punished, forced to build the walls of Troy. Another episode: he pushes the wife of King Minos to mate with a bull to give birth to the Minotaur. But Poseidon saves Apollo and Artemis from Hera's vengeance, gives Castor and Pollux the power to calm storms and offers men the horse. He is thus honored as well near the coasts (temple of the Cape Sounion) as in Thessaly, land always famous for its horses. He is known to have had about thirty lovers and mistresses as well as about sixty offspring, including four with his wife Amphitrite, goddess of the sea
Demeter. Goddess of Agriculture and Harvest, her cult is based on esoteric practices, such as the "Eleusis mysteries" in Attica. Daughter of Cronos and Rhea, she hardly sits on Olympus, staying in the fields to transmit her knowledge. Adopted by the Romans as Ceres (which gave "cereal"), she is often represented in search of Persephone, her beloved daughter, kidnapped by her brother Hades, god of the Underworld.
Aphrodite. In the Louvre, her superb wiggle leaves you without arms. Born from the sea, when Cronos emasculated Ouranos, she is the goddess of Beauty, Love and Sensuality. Vengeful, unmarried and collector of lovers, it is however her who presided over the teaching of the young girls. Venerated by the Romans as Venus, her origins are in the East. Moreover, during the Trojan war, she was one of the few Greek deities to support the Trojans. As for the Cypriots, they make their muse, calling their country "the island of Aphrodite". But it is from the Greek island of Milos that comes the famous Venus de Milo exposed in Paris.
Apollo. Born with Artemis from the love of Zeus and Leto, he is the god of Art, Beauty, the Sun and Medicine. Appearing late in the writings, he defies Gaia by killing her son Python and brings his support to the Trojans. However, the Greeks devoted a growing cult to him because of his healing powers. They dedicated to him their biggest sanctuaries, Delphi and Delos, as well as the Pythian and Delian Games. Its reputation will remain immense: the Romans will not change the name, Nietzsche will make it the symbol of reason (the logos) and it is with the Apollo missions that NASA will go to the Moon.
Artemis. Twin sister of Apollo and called Diana by the Romans, she is the goddess of Nature, Hunting, Childbirth and the Moon. Often represented as a huntress with her golden bow forged by the Cyclops, she appears more in the East as a multimammia deity (with many breasts). It is this symbol of fertility, but also her virginity that will ensure her fame. Thus, in Ephesus, the huge temple dedicated to her was among the Seven Wonders of the World
Athena. The most beautiful of the goddesses. Daughter of Zeus and the aquatic nymph Metis, Athena (Minerva for the Romans) is the goddess of Wisdom, Military Strategy, Craftsmen, Artists and Schoolmasters. She is the protector of several cities, including Sparta, but especially Athens, to which she gives her name and her symbol (the owl) and where the Parthenon is dedicated to her. Chaste and not too keen on revenge, Athena is the great rival of Poseidon and the protector of heroes.
Hephaestus. God of fire, forge, metallurgy and volcanoes, he is Vulcan for the Romans. Born of Hera alone, his mother judged him so ugly that she threw him from the top of Olympus, making him lame. As far as love is concerned, it's a bit trashy at first: rejected by Athena, he ejaculates on her and gives birth to the Athenians. Then things get better. He marries Charis ("Grace"), deity of Beauty and becomes Aphrodite's favorite lover. In his forge on the island of Lemnos, he designed the throne of Zeus, the arrows of Artemis, the cnemids (leggings) of Heracles, the winged sandals of Perseus, etc.
Hermes. Called Mercury in Rome, he is the son of Zeus and Maia, daughter of the Giant Atlas. With his petascus (round hat) and his winged sandals, he is a messenger of the gods... and a thief, "the best job in the world" according to him. He is therefore the god of Thieves, but also of Prostitutes, Travelers, Traders and Orators, guardian of the roads, giver of luck, or conductor of souls to the Underworld. Good to men, he offers them his inventions: fire, writing, zither, flute, dance, weights and measures. And if he has almost no sanctuary, Hermaic steles are erected everywhere for him, sculpted blocks where only his head and his sex appear
Ares, Hades, Dionysus and Hestia. According to the beliefs, two of these four gods sit on the Olympus. Ares (Mars for the Romans) is the son of Zeus and Hera, god of War and Destruction. Hades (Pluto in Rome) was born of Cronos and Rhea. God of the Underworld, he is accompanied by his wife Persephone and the three-headed dog Cerberus and they guard the Underworld. Dionysus (Bacchus for the Romans) was born from the love of Zeus and one of his mistresses, Semele or Persephone. He is the god of madness, excess, enthusiasm, the vine, wine and its excesses. A great source of inspiration for Greco-Roman art, he presides over masked celebrations which turn into orgies, but which also herald the birth of theater. Finally, Hestia (Vesta in Roman version) is the wisest. Daughter of Cronos and Rhea, she is a virgin and occupies the position of goddess of the Home: she supervises both the domestic hearth and the sacred fire of the cities.
Heroes and epics
The stories of heroic deeds were tales that, with their morality and sense of tragedy, shaped the Greco-Roman identity. They can be found in the modern world, from the names of constellations to great works of art, from computers to psychoanalysis
The Trojan War. Narrated in Homer'sIliad, it represents the quintessence of Greek mythology, since it includes a whole range of heroes and values dear to the Ancients. Located on the coast of present-day Turkey, the city of Troy has been nicknamed "Poseidon's citadel" since the god of the sea endowed it with impregnable ramparts. But it does not belong entirely to the Greek world and symbolizes the eternal struggle against the peoples of the East, especially the Persians. The Trojan prince Paris triggers the conflict by kidnapping Helen, wife of the king of Sparta, Menelaus. Menelaus responds by mobilizing with his brother Agamemnon most of the Greek kings, called here the Achaeans. The siege of Troy lasts ten years. It is marked by countless reversals of fortune, interventions of the gods and massacres as well as by the death of Hector, son of the Trojan king Priam and brother of Paris, and Achilles, the greatest Greek warrior, killed by an arrow that hits him at his only weak point, his heel. Finally Ulysses develops the stratagem of the Trojan horse. Left in front of the city gates, this large wooden structure appears to the Trojans as an offering from the Greeks. Pulled inside the ramparts, the horse hides a commando led by Ulysses who takes advantage of the night to open the gates to the rest of the Greek army. The war thus ends with a ruse, but also with the destruction of Troy. Myth or reality? In 1870, the German Heinrich Schliemann surprised the world by discovering the authentic ruins of Troy. But, on his way, the archaeologist-adventurer produced a whole series of forgeries, including the magnificent mask of Agamemnon, exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens. Subject of permanent debates between historians, the Trojan War is above all a major theme of the arts since Antiquity. Its heroes are painted and sculpted throughout the Greco-Roman world, giving rise to an opera by Offenbach(La Belle Hélène, 1864), to theatrical allegories such as La Guerre de Troie n'aura pas lieu (The Trojan War Will Not Take Place ) by Jean Giraudoux in 1935 and inspiring a number of novels and films such as Troy (2004) with Brad Pitt in the role of Achilles. TheIliad is even used in the computer world, where a Trojan horse is a malicious software.
Odysseus' journey. "Happy who like Odysseus has made a beautiful journey. After ten years of war in Troy, King Odysseus(Odysseus in Greek) had well deserved to return to his island of Ithaca, his wife Penelope and his son Telemachus. Alas, the famous verse of Joachim du Bellay (1558) does not reflect the myth at all. According to Homer'sOdyssey, the hero will take ten years to return home, facing monsters and losing all his companions. Despite the pitfalls set by Poseidon, Odysseus resists the song of the sirens, escapes the Cyclops Polyphemus, falls from Charybdis (daughter of Poseidon perpetually hungry) in Scylla (six-headed monster), narrowly misses being transformed into a pig by the magician Circe, but he stays seven years with the nymph Calypso who promised him immortality. Finally, Zeus intervenes so that Odysseus returns to his family. Of all the adaptations of this story, we will remember the novel by James Joyce, Ulysses (1922), and two films: The Look of Ulysses (1995) by Theo Angelopoulos and O'Brother (2000) by the Cohen brothers.
Theseus and the Minotaur. Born of Poseidon's revenge against the king of Crete Minos, the Minotaur is a monster with a man's body and a bull's head. Locked in a labyrinth designed by the architect Daedalus, he demands that every nine years seven boys and seven girls of Athens be delivered to him to be devoured. When the new deadline arrives, Theseus, son of the Athenian king Aegeus, volunteers to face the monster. In Crete, Theseus meets Ariadne, daughter of Minos, who falls in love with him. Theseus manages to kill the Minotaur and, thanks to a thread entrusted by Ariadne, to find the exit of the labyrinth. He leaves for Athens by boat with his companions and Ariadne, but abandons her on a deserted island. The punishment of Theseus is not long in coming: in sight of Piraeus, the hero forgets to raise the white sail announcing his victory. His father, who was waiting for him on the port, saw the black sail of defeat on the horizon. Thinking his son dead, he commits suicide by throwing himself into the sea which, since then, bears the name of Aegean. As for Ariane, it remains associated with the idea of a line to follow (the "Ariane line" of divers, for example) and also with the European rocket launched since 1979 in French Guiana
The dream of Icarus. Where we find the architect Daedalus, locked in his own labyrinth with his son Icarus. King Minos threw them in for having given Ariadne the idea of the thread that allowed Theseus to escape. This time Minos has the only possible way out guarded. Daedalus finds the solution: to escape by air by making for himself and his son two pairs of wings made of feathers glued with beeswax. This can work, provided they don't fly too high, warns Daedalus. Together, they manage to take off, but the son, too sure of himself, refuses to listen to his father. Icarus gets closer to the sun, which melts the wax of his wings, and dies off the island of Samos, in what will be called the Icarian Sea. The dream of Icarus - to fly like a bird - has always haunted men. The story is above all a metaphor for youth: be careful not to push the limits too far, you will burn your wings.
The tragedy of Heracles. Called Hercules by the Romans, Heracles is often presented in the arts as the model of the positive hero thanks to his twelve labors. But his story is more complicated. Already, he was born under the name of Alcide, conceived by Zeus and his mistress Alcmène, queen of Thebes. He is a victim of the jealousy of Hera, wife of Zeus, who seeks to suppress him. But the baby, endowed with a "Herculean" strength, easily slays the snakes placed in his cradle. His destiny appears then all traced, since his father wants to make him a hero (mortal) as powerful as the gods. For his education, Alcide is thus placed near the centaur Chiron. He performs some feats, gets married and has several children. Everything goes well until the day when, taken by madness, he commits the irreparable: he kills his wife and all his offspring. When he comes to his senses, he thinks of committing suicide. Theseus dissuades him, and then the change takes place: Alcide takes the name of Heracles ("Glory of Hera") in honor of his disgraced mother-in-law and turns to his enemy Eurystheus to punish him by entrusting him with "impossible missions", the famous twelve labors: to confront the lion of Medea and the hydra of Lerna, to capture the boar of Erymanthus and the bull of Minos, to run the hind of Cerynia, to clean the stables of Augias... In fact, all his mortal life, Heracles will seek to expiate his fault by fighting monsters and injustice. This will earn him a welcome on Olympus where, having become immortal, he will be reconciled with Hera
Jason and the Golden Fleece. Son of the king of Iolcos (now Volos), in Thessaly, Jason narrowly escaped death at birth, when his uncle Pelias seized power. Brought up on Mount Pelion by the centaur Chiron (like Heracles, Theseus, Castor and Pollux), Jason will never stop trying to take back the throne. Pelias agrees to give it back to him on condition that he brings back the Golden Fleece: the skin of the magic ram Chrysomallos ("Golden Wool"), son of Poseidon sacrificed in honor of Zeus, which is hanging from a tree in Colchis (today's Armenia) and guarded by the dragon and the men of king Aetestes. Jason went to the Black Sea on board theArgos with his companions, the Argonauts. In Colchis, Aeetes subjects them to many tests, but with the help of his daughter, Medea, Jason and the Argonauts manage to take the Fleece. Returning to Iolcos with Medea, Jason discovers that Pelias has not kept his word: he has killed his father and retained the throne. Exiled for ten years in Corinth, Jason prepares his return and has two sons with Medea. Medea casts a spell on the children of Pelias who murder their father. But, abandoned by Jason, Medea kills their sons and the hero's new wife. Supported by the twins Castor and Pollux (sons of Zeus) and by Peleus (father of Achilles), Jason completes his quest by taking back the throne of Iolcos.
The punishment of Sisyphus. Mythical founder of Corinth, Sisyphus is known as the possible father of Ulysses and for his cunning, which allows him to outwit the great thief Autolycos and even death. But his excessive ambitions will cause his downfall: he irritates the gods by building the huge citadel of Acrocorinth, which is still very impressive indeed. As a punishment, he is forced to push a huge stone to the top of a mountain, from where it always ends up falling back. In his essay The Myth of Sisyphus (1942), Albert Camus makes it the symbol of the absurdity of life. An absurdity which does not prevent happiness and which can find a positive outcome provided that one chooses revolt.
Bellerophon and the Chimera. Mythical king of Corinth and grandson of Sisyphus, Bellerophon receives the mission to deliver the province of Lycia (modern Turkey) ravaged by the Chimera. This fire-breathing monster has a lion's body, a goat's head on its back and a dragon's tail ending in a snake's head. Athena advises the hero to tame the winged horse Pegasus, the only creature fast enough to help him in his task. With his mount, Bellerophon manages to kill the Chimera, and then succeeds in other feats, like defeating the Amazons. But like his grandfather Sisyphus, he is too ambitious. Feeling worthy of being a god, he rides through the skies to Olympus. Zeus strikes him down, forcing him to wander the earth blind for eternity.
