History History

Roman progression on the territory of present-day Slovenia.

Slovenian cities were built during this period, including Emona, a Roman colony established in AD 14 on the site of the present city centre of Ljubljana. It was built to continue the conquest of the Balkans by Emperor Augustus. Its role as an administrative and cultural centre has grown over the decades, giving it an increasingly strategic role. Enjoying real prosperity, the river Ljubljanica allowed Emona to transport goods between the Italian peninsula and central Europe. Other Slovenian cities had a certain reputation, such as Celeia (now Celje) and Poetovio (now Ptuj). The former became a major colony in the region and was given the prestigious nickname "Second Troy". The second was the main checkpoint for goods in transit between east and west, so much so that Emperor Trajan granted it the official and honorary status of a Roman city in 103 AD.

First settlement of the Slavs fleeing the invasion of the Huns marching on Italy. There were major population movements during this period: the Slavs left Moravia to settle in the Julian Alps, in Pannonia, in the Drava Valley and along the banks of the Danube.

Carantania becomes the first Slavic state in history and takes the form of a principality. Its capital is located on the Zollfeld plain in southern Austria. The northern part of present-day Slovenia is part of the territory of the principality.

Carantania was annexed by the Carolingian Empire of the Franks. Evangelization campaigns were then launched in order to subdue and integrate the Slavic populations: they met with severe resistance.

The principality of Balaton, then led by Prince Kocel, founded a Slovenian state in Lower Pannonia. This experience will remain relatively short-lived.

Publication of the manuscripts of Freising, the oldest Slovenian-language document. It is a series of liturgical sermons on confession, penance and sin.

The Duchy of Carinthia is gradually establishing itself in place of Eastern Francia, which is declining sharply. This led to the Germanisation of the region, which took mainly linguistic and religious forms.

A period of unrest and recurrent Magyar invasions which destabilised the pre-Slovenian territory for a long time.

For the first time, the city of Ljubljana is mentioned under its Germanic name Castrum Laibach.

The control of the Habsburg Empire over the territory of Slovenia lasted almost seven centuries. For a long time, feelings oscillated between apprehension, rejection and appeasement. The most decisive tensions were in the religious sphere, with a latent conflict between supporters of the Reformation and counter-reformists throughout the second half of the 16th century. Joseph II's deep attachment to the Slovene specificity, granting the Slovene people a very real linguistic promotion and a better integration within the Austrian Empire, should also be highlighted. As an area of transition between the west and east of Europe, Slovenia appeared to be a key player in the construction of new trade routes, particularly between Vienna and the port of Trieste

The absence of Slovenian national claims can be explained by the relative autonomy acquired over time, but also by the Germanisation of the Slovenian elites. The vernacular language was spoken only in villages and by a predominantly rural population. A literary event was to shake up this state of affairs: the publication of a history of Slovenia in the strict sense by Anton Linhart in 1790.

In the aftermath, Napoleon's Illyrian interlude indirectly reinforced Slovenian national sentiment. It is the unexpected and informal culmination of the reunion of the South Slavs into a single state structure. The stories of the French Revolution about the sovereignty of peoples seduced the Slovenian elites. On the other hand, the segmentation of the Slovenian territory into departments and the official promotion of the Slovenian language are moving in the direction of greater autonomy. However, the fall of the French Empire accelerated the violent reassertion of Austrian domination over Slovenian territory.

The fact remains that Slovenes multiplied linguistic initiatives in the first part of the 19th century. A Slovenian grammar was published by Jernej Kopitar in 1808, and Slovenian patriotism regained its letters of nobility through the romantic poetry of Frances Preseren (1830-1840). In 1848, the awakening of the nations in Europe did not bypass Slovenia, although the lack of political coordination and the essentially cultural inspiration did not allow for a considerable advance. The essential role of the publisher Mohorjeva in the process of the spread of the Slovenian language is worth noting in passing. Some concessions were nevertheless obtained in the second half of the 19th century, such as the management of local administrations by Slovene personalities and the recognition of Slovene identity.

The Duchy of Carinthia was ceded to the Habsburgs, who now administer a large part of present-day Slovenia.

Earthquake partially destroying Ljubljana.

The Protestant feeling develops through the publication of the Catechismus and theAbecedarium in the Slovenian language by Primoz Trubar. There is a real popular interest in the Reformation in Slovenia, which is justified by intellectual actors close to Lutheran circles.

Repeated Ottoman invasions that destabilize the region until the battle of Sisak, which confirms the Turkish retreat in a lasting way from 1593.

The Bible is published in Slovenian by Jurij Dalmatin.

Counter-Reformation is being forcefully imposed in the Slovenian territories. The decrees of the Council of Trent, between 1545 and 1563, are strictly enforced. The aim was to weaken Protestantism, which also appeared to be a potential expression of national sentiment, incompatible with imperial designs.

The Illyrian Provinces were created by Napoleon's French Empire following his decisive victory at the Battle of Wagram in July 1809. The Treaty of Schönbrunn, ratified in October 1809, gave France the administration of Upper Carinthia, the Carniolan, Slovenian and Croatian Adriatic coasts. Ljubljana (or Laibach) was chosen as the administrative capital. The Napoleonic tutelage is clearly visible during these few years with the promotion of the Civil Code, the departmentalisation and regionalisation of the territory. Furthermore, the integration of the local population into the administration and the promotion of the Slovenian language were to revive national sentiment in Slovenia, long after the French had been driven out of the region following the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

National sentiment has been awakened in Slovenia and is emerging through romantic nationalism. The Spring of the Peoples is not a regional specificity: it is omnipresent in Europe and appears as a consequence of the 1815 Congress of Vienna, which put an end to Napoleon's imperialist wishes. Slovenia wishes to free itself from the Austrian stranglehold. This patriotic impetus is embodied by the figure of the poet Frances Preseren, who wrote the national anthem(zravljica) at the time.

As a result of this mainly cultural springtime of nations, a more political movement is emerging which is taking the form of a programmatic work in favour of a unified Slovenia. The major demands are: an official status for the Slovene language and autonomy from the politics of Germanisation. These projects, spearheaded by Matja Majar, will achieve mixed results. The language and the flag will soon be recognised de facto, but without any perceived progress in terms of autonomy, but rather a symbolic concession.

Launch of the railway on Slovenian territory.

The territory of Slovenia is now divided. The Mediterranean coast is under Italian rule, while mainland Slovenia remains under the banner of Austria-Hungary.

Earthquake in Ljubljana. The city is deeply destroyed.

Reconstruction against the backdrop of the modernisation of the Slovenian capital. The Art Nouveau inspiration can be seen on every street corner, driven by the innovative ambition of Jože Plečnik.

The strategic objective of the belligerents is to take possession of the Trieste region. The battles follow one another in succession, with no winner, but each time increasing the number of victims (about 500,000 dead and nearly a million wounded). Following a series of eleven battles, the confrontation of Caporetto (Italian name for Kobarid) will highlight the Austro-German superiority in this region.

Foundation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The latter obtain cultural and linguistic sovereignty, but are politically dominated by Serbian power.

Opening of the new University of Ljubljana.

Signing of the Treaty of Rapallo. Istria comes under Italian domination.

This Slovenian protonational consciousness, developed from the nineteenth century onwards, will not be denied in the following century. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of the First World War, Slovenia saw in Yugoslavia a political opportunity to achieve greater autonomy and to strive for the union of the South Slavic peoples. This optimistic feeling can be explained by the memory of the Illyrian precedent and the desire to put an end to the Austrian domination of the last few centuries.

However, Slovenes will soon realise the lure of Yugoslavia in the hope that their voice will be heard. Indeed, the promotion of a central state is at the heart of the project of this new Yugoslav nation, largely dominated by Serbia. The principle of unitarism is everywhere, as evidenced by the division of Yugoslav territory into thirty-three administrative units, irrespective of linguistic, cultural and historical affinities

When the dictatorship of Alexander I came to power in 1929, the situation was not better for the Slovenes, who were referred to as a 'tribe' in the same way as the other peoples forming the Yugoslav nation. The absence of Slovene revolt must be understood in terms of a deep division of protonational opinion: some Slovenes are thus seduced by the Yugoslav imaginary, the bearer of a certain political greatness, while others seek above all to defend the Slovene prerogative. In any case, the policy of firmness continued in the 1930s.

Austrian Carinthia is annexed by Nazi Germany.

Yugoslavia is gradually being invaded. Nazi soldiers occupy the central and eastern Slovenian territory, while the Italian armed forces take over the western and coastal parts.

In the face of the occupation, the Slovenian resistance organised itself clandestinely with the foundation of the Slovenian Nation Liberation Front in Ljubljana.

Italy surrenders. Hitler orders the occupation of western and coastal Slovenia.

The city of Trieste is liberated by the Yugoslav army.

The Free Territory of Trieste was created in order to settle Italian and Yugoslav territorial claims.

Trieste becomes Italian while Yugoslavia recovers northern Istria.

Belgrade Declaration endorsing the new socialist orientation of Yugoslavia, embodied by the personality of Tito. At the end of the Second World War, Yugoslavia will take on a new communist inclination. It is distinguished by its independence from the USSR, refusing in particular to ratify the Warsaw Pact in 1955. In economic terms, state omnipotence was gradually replaced by the promotion of self-government. Economic progress is visible, particularly in Slovenia. Politically, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was proclaimed in 1963 by Marshal Tito. It now comprises six republics, including Slovenia. Slovenia is noted for its prosperity, which attracts many people from other Yugoslav republics. At the end of the 1970s, Slovenia accounted for about 20% of Yugoslavia's GDP for only 8% of its total population. The desire for independence is beginning to manifest itself, the eyes of the Slovenian elites are already turned towards Western Europe. Tito's death in 1980 will only increase this national feeling.

We are entering an era of economic reform. Slovenia is becoming the most attractive territory in the Federation of Yugoslavia thanks to the structural modernisation of its economy. A first wave of emigration from the other Yugoslav republics was noted

This decade marks the authoritarian takeover of the Yugoslav central government. Tito imposed a more personal power, which strengthened the unity of the federation around his personality. In the short term, this is a political success.

Tito dies in Ljubljana.

There was a strong cultural and popular mobilization in favour of Slovenia's independence, embodied in particular by the personality of Milan Kučan. This "Slovenian Spring" is characterized by a distancing from Belgrade and a criticism of the policy initiated by the new strongman of Yugoslavia, Slobodan Milošević.

Episode of self-defense "Action North": Slovenian law enforcement officials ban Milošević supporters from coming to Ljubljana. Politically, the Slovenian Parliament confirms its desire for self-determination and its intention to leave the Yugoslav federation for good.

Milan Kučan is elected President of the Republic of Slovenia.

88.5% of Slovenes vote in favour of their country's independence.

Official Declaration of Independence. At the same time, Croatia is taking the same diplomatic course.

It is in fact a Yugoslav military reaction to the Slovenian initiative for independence. The federal army wins some victories, Slovenia loses ground. However, international public opinion is mobilising massively in favour of Slovenian independence. The Yugoslavs, for their part, appear to be disorganised, so that the Slovenian army achieves some resounding victories. A cease-fire is finally decided on 7 July 1991.

Signing of the Brioni agreements. The war between Slovenia and Yugoslavia is now over. According to the official death toll, 63 people died and 328 were wounded.

It affirms the establishment of a democratic republic based on the separation of the three fundamental powers: executive, legislative and judicial. It strongly emphasises the fundamental principle of the inalienable right of the Slovene nation to self-determination. Organisationally, a President of the Republic is elected every five years by direct universal suffrage: his power is limited, his function being mainly symbolic. The Parliament, composed of 90 deputies, is renewed every four years by the Slovene people: the majority party or parties are responsible for forming a government. An amendment to the Constitution is always possible: for example, in 2016, the right to unprivatised drinking water was enshrined in Slovenian law.

Slovenia is officially recognised by the European Economic Community (EEC).

It is now the turn of the United Nations to recognise Slovenia's independence.

An Association Agreement is reached between the Slovenian Government and the European Union (EU).

Publication of the first major census in Slovenia. It provides a relevant set of statistics for a better understanding of social developments in the young Slovenian society.

Slovenia joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) in March and formally joined the European Union two months later.

Further European integration of the country with the adoption of the euro as the national currency to replace the tolar which has existed since independence.

Slovenia is now part of the Schengen area and must preserve the union by controlling the border with Croatia.

Observers reported a rather positive assessment. The policy of rapprochement between the European Union and the Balkan countries has made some significant progress, the ratification of the Lisbon Treaty has been completed, and the first continental measures to preserve the environment have been put in place. In addition, the promotion of the free circulation of knowledge has been supported, in particular with the creation of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology, based in Budapest.

Crisis in the Bay of Piran, territorial conflict between Slovenia and Croatia. Slovenia is strongly attached to this bay because it is a major strategic issue: it is its only maritime opening. In 2009, Slovenia and Croatia agreed to bring the dispute before the International Arbitral Tribunal. However, in the summer of 2015, a Slovenian judge of this same tribunal was accused of bias and had to resign. Croatia then unilaterally withdrew from the arbitration, while Slovenia continued to support it. In June 2017, the Arbitral Tribunal grants Slovenia direct access to the international waters of the Adriatic. Croatia does not recognise this decision and refuses to implement it, despite the insistence of European bodies. We are now witnessing a form of status quo ante characterised by unilateral sanctions on both sides of the maritime border, without any prospect of a lasting resolution to the conflict.

Slovenia becomes a member of the OECD.

Large-scale migration crisis affecting the country, which is critical of the EU's wait-and-see attitude and of Croatia's facilitation of the transit of migrants.

Ljubljana is awarded the honorary prize of European Green Capital by the European Commission.

World Bee Day is established by the United Nations on the initiative of the Slovenian Government. The date 20 May is the birthday of the father of modern beekeeping, Anton Jansa.

Slovenia are crowned European champions in men's basketball after their victory in the final against Serbia.

Slovenia holds the Presidency of the UN Human Rights Council. Major advances have been noted, such as the creation of a mechanism for gathering evidence on human rights violations. It is currently being used in connection with the Rohingya crisis in Burma. Slovenia had also worked for the adoption of a resolution on the problematic human rights situation in Venezuela.

Bilateral meeting between French President Emmanuel Macron and Slovenian Prime Minister Marjan Šarec.

Alenka Ermenc is appointed Chief of Staff of the Slovenian Army. A world first for a woman.

Update of the strategic partnership between France and Slovenia under the leadership of the two Ministers for Foreign Affairs, Jean-Yves Le Drian and Miro Cerar. The aim is to ensure political continuity during the two countries' successive presidencies of the European Union in 2021-2022.

The head of the government, Marjan Šarec, resigned following his difficulties in reforming the health system. Early parliamentary elections brought the very conservative Janez Janša to power

Slovenia's new EU Presidency will focus on the following objectives previously set by the Government: the promotion of sustainable and environmentally friendly practices on a continental scale, and the promotion of the idea of the European people.

Conservative Prime Minister Janez Jansa lost the parliamentary elections, far behind the Freedom Movement (GS) of Robert Golob