History d'Hongrie

The right bank of the Danube, around Budapest's Mount Gellért, was inhabited by the Eravisks, a Celtic people, alongside other ancient peoples (Scythians, Thracians, Illyrians). The Carpathian Basin has been a cultural crossroads since antiquity.

The Romans founded a military camp at Aquincum (now Óbuda) on the right bank of the Danube. They also established Transaquincum and Contra-Aquincum on the left bank. The region became strategic for the Roman Empire and began to enjoy lasting prosperity.

Emperor Trajan divides the province into Upper and Lower Pannonia. Aquincum became the capital of Lower Pannonia. Arrabona (Győr) was initially used as a frontier. Roman development accelerates: roads, thermal baths, heated villas, shops and remarkable urbanization spread.

During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, barbarian attacks multiplied. Aquincum was devastated several times. Roman stability faltered, although the town remained important thanks to its renowned baths and strategic location on the Roman limes.

The Huns, who came from Central Asia, conquered Pest and then Aquincum. Their leader, Attila, imposed his domination over a vast empire, which fragmented after his death. Germanic tribes reclaimed the territory, marking the end of the Roman era.

After the Vandals, Sarmatians and Ostrogoths, the Lombards settled in Óbuda. Their presence was temporary, however, as the Avars took power in 570. They founded a lasting empire and settled in Óbuda.

Charlemagne launched a series of military campaigns against the Avars. Their empire collapsed in the face of Frankish forces and Bulgarian attacks. Before the arrival of the Magyars, Franks, Moravians and Bulgarians coexisted in the ruins of Aquincum.

Led by Árpád and Kurszán, the seven Magyar tribes left the Eurasian steppes to settle in the Carpathian basin, fleeing the Petchenègues and seeking new lands. They settled permanently in the late 800s, Árpád on the island of Csepel, Kurszán in Óbuda. This migration marked the beginnings of medieval Hungary.

Géza, great-grandson of Árpád, opened the kingdom to Western Christianity and was baptized. He authorized the establishment of religious missions, thus paving the way for the religious and political unification of the territory, initiating the process of forming a Hungarian feudal state aligned with the structures of the Holy Roman Empire.

Stephen ^I, son of Prince Géza, was crowned king on January¹, 1001, with the support of Pope Sylvester II, who sent him the Holy Crown of Hungary, which has since become a major symbol of Hungarian kingship. With this coronation, Stephen officially made Hungary a Western Christian kingdom. He imposed the Catholic faith, founded ten dioceses and instituted an organized clergy, thus consolidating his central power over the still partially pagan Magyar tribes. He established his main residence in Székesfehérvár, which became the religious and political center of the kingdom, and the site of future coronations and royal burials.

Under the reign of Béla III, the royal court regained stability by settling in Óbuda, after a century of itinerancy between several centers of power. Béla III undertook a major administrative and cultural reinforcement of the kingdom. He created a structured royal chancellery, inspired by Western models, notably those of the Capetian kings, marking an adoption of Western customs and institutions. Béla III also ordered the writing of the first royal chronicle in Latin, marking the beginning of an official historiography. Under his reign, Hungary underwent a notable development in both state organization and culture.

The city of Pest, until then modest, saw the arrival of Jewish and German merchants. Their settlement boosted economic activity on the left bank of the Danube. This urban development remained fragile, however, and was brought to an abrupt halt by the Mongol invasions two decades later.

Batu Khan's Mongol armies invade Hungary and destroy Pest. Óbuda was temporarily spared thanks to the spring overflow of the Danube, but in 1242, the frozen waters allowed the Mongols to cross the river. Hungary was ravaged: towns razed to the ground, populations massacred, state structures disorganized.

Following the ravages of the Mongols, fortified towns were built, often with the help of Germanic populations invited by the king. Béla IV granted privileges to the new inhabitants. It was also at this time that the Cumans, a Turkic people who came with the Mongols, were allowed to stay in Hungary. Their assimilation was gradual, and their presence is still visible in place names such as "Kunság".

After the destruction, Béla IV launched a vast reconstruction program. He built the royal castle on Buda Hill, which became the new center of royal power. This reconstruction marked a turning point: for the first time, the state actively encouraged the construction of fortifications and invited foreign settlers to repopulate the country.

The Mongols attempted another incursion, but this time the better-prepared Hungarians managed to repel them. Fortification efforts and the integration of new ethnic groups strengthened the kingdom's military and demographic resilience.

André III died without a direct heir, marking the end of Hungary's founding line. Succession to the throne became an international affair: several foreign houses laid claim to the crown, ushering in a period of dynastic instability and feudal strife.

From a line related to the Árpádians, Charles ^I ascended the throne after a period of succession struggles. His reign inaugurated the Angevin dynasty in Hungary. He strengthened royal power, centralized administration and stimulated the economy by exploiting gold and silver mines, making Hungary a prosperous kingdom.

The son of Charles ^I, Louis I pursued an ambitious policy, conquering Dalmatia and subjugating Bosnia, Wallachia and Moldavia as vassals. In 1370, he also became King of Poland, unifying the two crowns. In 1367, he founded the country's first university in Pécs. His reign marked the territorial and political apogee of the kingdom.

Married to Marie d'Anjou, daughter of Louis ^I, Sigismund of Luxembourg became King of Hungary. His long reign was marked by internal and external conflicts, but also by major works in Buda. In 1418, he enlarged the royal palace, which gradually became the heart of power.

Thanks to the royal presence and the security offered by the fortified palace, Buda attracts inhabitants and craftsmen. The city had a population of around 15,000, compared with 10,000 in Pest. Architecture evolved from wood to stone. The name Óbuda ("Old Buda") came to refer to the former Roman site of Aquincum, while the "new" Buda established itself as the capital.

János Hunyadi, voivode of Transylvania, national hero and remarkable strategist, defeats the Ottomans at Belgrade, preventing their advance towards the heart of Europe. This victory gave Hungary a 70-year respite from the Turkish threat. Hunyadi gained in prestige and became regent of the kingdom, paving the way for his son, Matthias (Mátyás in Hungarian).

After bloody disputes over the succession, Mátyás Hunyadi, known as Corvin, was elected king. At just 15, he embodied a new era. Intelligent, multilingual and a fine strategist, he reorganized the army (the famous "Black Army"), modernized the administration and strengthened the monarchy in the face of the nobles, building a powerful and efficient kingship.

Married to Mátyás, Beatrice of Aragon brought with her the culture of the Italian Renaissance. The king became a great patron of the arts, literature and science. The Hungarian court rivaled the greatest in Europe. Artists such as Lippi and Botticelli collaborated from afar, and a workshop was even founded in Florence to fulfill his commissions.

Under Mátyás Corvin, Hungary built one of Europe's largest libraries, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, with 3,000 manuscript volumes. It bears witness to the king's humanism and intellectual influence. Dispersed after the Ottoman invasion, it is now shared between several European libraries.

Mátyás's death marked the end of a prosperous period. Hungary, modernized, respected, with a powerful army and flourishing culture, entered an era of relative decline, undermined by feudal ambitions and growing Ottoman pressure.

This battle, won by Suleiman the Magnificent, marked a historic turning point. The Hungarian army was crushed, and King Louis II drowned while attempting to flee. Mohács symbolizes the collapse of the medieval Hungarian kingdom and paves the way for Ottoman domination. Christian Europe loses an essential bulwark against the Ottoman Empire.

Taking advantage of the political instability that followed Mohács, the Ottomans occupied Buda with little resistance. The town became an Ottoman garrison and administrative center. This marked the end of Buda as a Christian capital: the Ottoman Empire installed civil servants, soldiers and imams. Pest and Óbuda declined under the effects of destruction and depopulation.

Hungary found itself divided into three entities: in the west, the Habsburgs dominated part of the territory, with Vienna as the center of royal power; in the center, the Ottoman Empire occupied Buda and a large part of the country; in the east, Transylvania remained an autonomous principality, sometimes vassal of the Turks, sometimes allied with the Habsburgs, depending on political circumstances.

Pasha Mustafa Sokollu initiated the construction of several public baths in the occupied capital. Heirs to Roman baths and inspired by Islamic tradition, these baths (Rácz, Rudas, Császár, Király) had a lasting cultural influence. The practice of thermal baths, abandoned since Antiquity, was revived by the Ottomans.

Although the Ottomans stayed for almost 150 years, few buildings remain apart from a few mosques (notably in Pécs and Siklós), rare minarets (such as the one in Eger) and mausoleums, including that of Gül Baba in Budapest. The architectural legacy remains limited, but it bears witness to the spiritual and urban imprint of the occupation.

Under Ottoman rule, Óbuda, once an important political and administrative center, was reduced to a simple village. Waves of invasions, massacres and instability severely weakened the town, which only regained its importance in the ^18th century, following the Habsburg reconquest.

Taking advantage of the Ottoman failure at Vienna (1683), Austrian Empire troops led by Eugène de Savoie recaptured Buda. The Turks were finally driven out. The castle, ruined by the siege, was rebuilt. The Ottoman period is erased both architecturally and culturally: few Ottoman traces remain.

The War of Independence of 1703-1711, led by Ferenc Rákóczi II, marked an attempt by Hungarians to rise up against Habsburg domination. The movement was born of growing dissatisfaction with the heavy taxes and restrictions imposed by the Austrian monarchy after the recapture of Buda in 1686. Supported by the nobility and some of the peasants, Rákóczi succeeded in mobilizing an army, winning several victories against the imperial troops.

However, the uprising gradually ran out of steam. The War of the Spanish Succession, which occupied Austria, initially slowed the Habsburgs' response, but once this conflict was resolved, Vienna regained the upper hand. In 1711, the Treaty of Szatmár put an end to the revolt: in exchange for certain guarantees on Hungarian freedoms, the insurgents were required to lay down their arms. Rákóczi refused to submit, opting for exile and ending his life in Turkey.

During this period, Budapest remained scarred by the destruction left by previous conflicts.

The reign of Maria Theresa of Austria (1740-1780) in Hungary began in a climate of tension. Her father, Charles VI, had instituted the Pragmatic Sanction (1713) to allow a woman to inherit the Habsburg lands, including Hungary. However, several European powers contested her right to the throne, triggering the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748).

To secure her power, she turned to the Hungarian nobility and convened the Hungarian Diet (the National Assembly) in 1741. In a famous speech, she asked for their support, and in exchange promised to respect their privileges. Thanks to this alliance, she was able to stabilize her reign.

Once at peace, Maria Theresa undertook reforms to modernize Hungary. She improved the administration, developed the economy and set up a school system with the Ratio Educationis (1777). In 1771, she ordered the reconstruction of the royal palace in Buda, marking the beginning of Budapest's renewal. Her reign strengthened Hungary's place within the Habsburg Empire, while maintaining a balance between Vienna and the Hungarian nobility.

Significant urban modernization begins, with street widening, a new city plan and the construction of Viennese-influenced public buildings.

A key period in the Hungarian revival and modernization of Budapest and the country, led by Count István Széchenyi, considered "the greatest of Hungarians". He was responsible for the creation of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the construction of the tunnel under the castle and the Chain Bridge (the first permanent bridge linking Pest and Buda).

Between 1830 and 1848, Hungarian nationalism rose steadily, accompanied by increasing political unrest. The Hungarian elite demanded greater autonomy from Vienna, while the city of Pest became a nerve center for liberal and national demands. In March 1848, against the backdrop of the European revolutions, Hungary entered its own revolt. The national poet Sándor Petőfi published the "Twelve Points", an emblematic manifesto demanding civil liberties, national independence and major political reforms. The revolution gave Hungary temporary constitutional autonomy. However, this advance provokes a reaction from the Austrian Empire, which pushes Croatia's ban Jelačić to attack Hungary, triggering a war of independence.

From Széna Square to the National Museum, the route of the opposition deputies, followed in 1848 by Petőfi and his companions, becomes a symbol of the national struggle. This route enters the Hungarian memory as an expression of patriotism.

The alliance of the Habsburgs and Tsar Nicholas ^I crushed the revolt. An army of 200,000 men crossed the Carpathians to defeat the rebels at Világos (modern-day Romania). Repression was severe, ushering in a new phase of Germanization and centralization.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 marked a major turning point in the history of the Austrian Empire, which was transformed into a dual monarchy: the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Faced with persistent demands from the Hungarian elite, and in a context of political fragility accentuated by Austria's defeat by Prussia in 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph agreed to recognize the autonomy of the Kingdom of Hungary. This compromise established a dual organization: on one side, Cisleithania, corresponding to the Austrian territories; on the other, Transleithania, corresponding to Hungary. Each half of the Empire now had its own parliament and government.

However, to maintain imperial unity, three ministries remained common to both entities: War, Finance (linked to common affairs) and Foreign Affairs. Economic cooperation between Austria and Hungary is governed by agreements renewable every ten years. This system enabled Hungary to regain a large measure of autonomy, while remaining part of the Habsburg imperial bloc.

On June 8, 1867, Franz Joseph and his wife Elisabeth, better known as Sissi, were solemnly crowned King and Queen of Hungary in a sumptuous ceremony in Buda's Matthias Church. In gratitude, the Hungarian nobility offered them Gödöllő Castle, which became one of the empress's favorite places to stay.

While this compromise permanently eased tensions between Vienna and Budapest, it did not settle the question of the other nationalities present within the Empire. Slavs, in particular, felt marginalized by this bipolar arrangement, contributing to a climate of frustration and political instability in the decades that followed.

On January^1, 1873, the Unification Act established the administrative merger of Buda, Pest and Óbuda, giving rise to Budapest, Hungary's unified capital. This decision put an end to the inefficiency of the dual-capital system introduced in 1867.

The Industrial Revolution accelerated Hungary's economic development. National income tripled and the urban population grew from 10% to almost a third of the total. Budapest approached the million-inhabitant mark and modernized rapidly: a dynamic Jewish quarter and working-class suburbs were built; Lipótváros became the administrative center; emblematic infrastructures were built, including several bridges over the Danube, the National Opera, St. Stephen's Basilica, the Hungarian Parliament and Freedom Square.

The millennium celebrations marking the arrival of the Magyar tribes in the Carpathian Basin marked a founding moment for modern Hungary.

Thanks to a specific law guaranteeing funding and organization, Budapest benefits from a wave of prestigious constructions that symbolize national power and pride: Hungarian Museum of Decorative Arts; Museum of Fine Arts; Műcsarnok (Exhibition Hall); Ferenc József Bridge (today Freedom Bridge).

This major urban project also includes the inauguration of continental Europe's first subway metro line (line M1), which runs along Andrássy Avenue. The Vajdahunyad Castle in Városliget Park and the renovation of the Fishermen's Bastion on Castle Hill illustrate the Hungarian-national architectural revival. This event propelled Budapest to its apogee, embodying Hungarian prosperity and pride within the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Engaged on the side of Austria-Hungary, Hungary suffered the disastrous consequences of the war: military defeat, severe economic crisis and the rise of revolutionary movements.

The government of Sándor Wekerle resigned in 1918, giving way to Mihály Károlyi, leader of the Independence Party and of 1848. He proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Hungary and set up his Council at the Hotel Astoria in Budapest.

Against a backdrop of chaos and external pressure, Mihály Károlyi merged his party with the Communists. Béla Kun, influenced by the Russian Bolshevik revolution, took power and established the Republic of Councils, an authoritarian Communist regime. This period was marked by the Red Terror, violent repression of opponents, profound political radicalization, a latent civil war and international tensions with the Little Entente (Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia). The downfall of the Bolshevik regime was brought about by Romanian and Czech military intervention, which occupied Budapest and overthrew Béla Kun.

Anti-Bolshevik resistance was organized, led by Gyula Andrássy (son of the 1867 Compromiser), and above all Miklós Horthy, former admiral of the Austro-Hungarian fleet.

The fall of Béla Kun's Bolshevik regime was brought about not so much by internal counter-revolution as by the intervention of Romanian and Czech troops, who occupied Budapest.

After a brief Romanian occupation, elections in 1920 brought Miklós Horthy to power as Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary (the throne remained officially vacant).
The Red Terror was succeeded by the White Terror: political persecution, purges and the hunting down of Communists.

The Treaty of Trianon, signed on June 4 1920 in the Grand Trianon Palace at Versailles, sealed Hungary's fate following the First World War and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Imposed by the Allied Powers, the treaty radically redrew the borders of Hungary, now considered solely responsible, in the eyes of the victors, for its own fallen imperial destiny.

Hungary lost 72% of its historic territory and over 60% of its population. Some 3.3 million Hungarians found themselves brutally in the minority in newly formed or enlarged neighboring states: Romania received Transylvania and part of Banat, Czechoslovakia seized Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia, while Vojvodina and another part of Banat reverted to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the future Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Austria recovered Burgenland.

In addition to these territorial losses, Hungary had to accept significant military restrictions and war reparations. The treaty disarmed Hungary, drastically limited the size of its army and profoundly weakened its economy, already weakened by the upheavals of the post-war period.

In Hungary's collective memory, Trianon quickly became a national trauma. It marked the end of a thousand-year-old Hungary and fueled a deep sense of injustice and humiliation. The imposed redistricting was perceived not only as an unjust punishment, but also as a negation of Hungarian national identity. This feeling of dispossession fueled a powerful revisionist movement in Hungarian society and politics throughout the interwar period.

After the deep traumas caused by the First World War and the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary achieved relative political stabilization and modest economic recovery. This was a fragile period, however, marked by social tensions and the reconstruction of a country that had lost two-thirds of its territory. Despite this difficult context, the institutions sought to consolidate.

The global economic crisis is hitting Hungary hard. Unemployment rose, poverty spread, and the population suffered the effects of the economic slowdown. Hungarian leaders attributed these difficulties to the loss of territory imposed by the Treaty of Trianon, and accused the Western powers, particularly the Allies, of betraying them. This sense of revenge led Hungary to strengthen its ties with Europe's rising authoritarian regimes, Mussolini's Fascist Italy and Hitler's Nazi Germany, in the hope of recovering lost lands.

As early as 1920, Hungary introduced a numerus clausus, a discriminatory limit on the number of Jewish students admitted to universities. It was the first law of its kind in Europe. It marked the beginning of a policy of exclusion and marginalization of Jews that intensified over the years. In 1938, the first anti-Jewish law was passed, restricting the civil and economic rights of the Jewish community. Other similar laws followed, intensifying the persecution.

Under the regency of Miklós Horthy, Hungary officially entered the Second World War on the side of Nazi Germany, mainly against the Soviet Union. Horthy hoped to recover the territories lost after the First World War. However, the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, which went against the Germans, prompted the regent to adopt an ambivalent strategy. He tried to appease the Western Allies by promising to prevent mass deportations of Jews, while continuing his military alliance with Hitler to fight the USSR.

Faced with Horthy's hesitations, the Nazis occupied Budapest in March 1944 and forced the regent to abdicate. They placed Ferenc Szálasi, leader of the fascist Arrow Cross party, at the head of the government, a collaborationist and extremist regime. Budapest's Jewish community, which represented around 20% of the population at the time, was confined to a ghetto bounded by Dohány Street, Király Street and Károly Boulevard. Deportations to extermination camps accelerated throughout the country. In all, some 565,000 Hungarian Jews were murdered during the Holocaust.

The Red Army crossed the Hungarian border in January 1945. After a bloody siege and fierce fighting, Budapest was liberated on February 13, 1945. The city was devastated: all its bridges had been destroyed, the castle was in ruins, three quarters of public buildings were damaged, and the majority of buildings were uninhabitable. Hungary had lost almost half its industrial and railway infrastructure, plunging the country into a major economic crisis.

In the aftermath of the war, the Hungarian Communists, supported by the Soviet Union, used a tactic known as the "salami method" to gradually eliminate their political opponents, slice by slice. Despite the victory of the Smallholders' Party in the November 1945 elections, the Communists became increasingly dominant. In 1949, they took exclusive control of power, establishing an authoritarian regime.

Hungary experienced a dark period under the regime of Mátyás Rákosi, loyal to Stalin. The country was subjected to brutal repression: food shortages, housing crises, severe censorship, mass arrests, forced exile and political assassinations characterized these years. The population lived in fear and deprivation, while the economy was run entirely by the state.

After Stalin's death, a period of political thaw began. Imre Nagy was appointed Prime Minister and initiated a series of progressive reforms: lower prices, the reopening of small businesses and the release of many political prisoners. These measures aimed to improve daily life and loosen the grip of Stalinism. However, these reforms worried Moscow, which eventually recalled Rákosi to power.

Inspired by the Polish student movement and exasperated by the return of Rákosi, thousands of Hungarians demonstrated in Budapest in October 1956. The uprising broke out on October 23, with the population demanding an end to the Communist regime and greater freedom. The Red Army quickly and violently intervened to crush the revolt. Some 2,000 insurgents were killed. Imre Nagy, who had regained power, was captured and executed in 1958.

János Kádár, loyal to Moscow, was installed as head of government. He ruled Hungary firmly, but by the end of the 1960s, his regime had evolved into a form of "soft dictatorship". The economy was loosened and the political system partially opened up, earning Hungary the ironic nickname of "the gayest barrack in the Soviet camp". This period of relative stability and moderate liberalization contrasted with the harsher regimes of neighboring countries.

In the 1980s, economic stagnation, mounting debt and the loss of ideological legitimacy weakened Kádár's regime. The aged and ailing Kádár was removed from power in 1989. His successors embarked on a process of democratic transition. In October 1989, the Hungarian People's Republic was officially dissolved, and the country became the Republic of Hungary. In April 1990, the first free elections since the Second World War were held, marking the definitive end of the Communist regime. On March 12, 1999, Hungary joined NATO.

In April 2002, Hungary's parliamentary elections saw the highest turnout since the first free elections in 1990: 70.43% in the first round, then 73.47% in the second.

The left-wing coalition, led by Péter Medgyessy, won 198 of the 386 seats in Parliament, including 178 for the MSZP (Hungarian Socialist Party) and 20 for the SZDSZ (Alliance of Free Democrats).

In May 2004, Hungary officially became a member of the European Union.
A few months later, in September, Ferenc Gyurcsány, a member of the MSZP, succeeded Péter Medgyessy as Prime Minister. Gyurcsány's rule was marked by reforms and growing political tensions, although in 2006 the center-left coalition once again won a majority in Parliament, confirming the country's relative confidence in his leadership.

On January^1, 2008, Hungary joined the Schengen area, abolishing land border controls with other member countries. This move facilitates the free movement of people and consolidates the country's participation in European integration mechanisms.

In the parliamentary elections of April 2010, Fidesz won a landslide victory with a two-thirds majority in Parliament. Viktor Orbán is once again Prime Minister.
The municipal elections in October confirmed Fidesz's progress, with the party taking Budapest for the first time since 1990, electing István Tarlós as mayor and marking a significant political shift in the capital.

On January^1, 2012, Hungary adopted a new constitution, strongly criticized for its conservative and nationalist orientation, as well as for the reforms it introduced to the judiciary, the media and other institutions. These changes trigger growing tensions with the European Union and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), raising concerns about respect for the rule of law and democratic values.

In April 2014, Fidesz again won the parliamentary elections with a two-thirds majority, consolidating Viktor Orbán's position as head of government.

In April 2018, Fidesz once again wins the parliamentary elections, strengthening its majority in Parliament. Viktor Orbán begins his third consecutive term in office. His ruling coalition once again has a two-thirds majority in Parliament.

In September, the European Parliament initiates an unprecedented procedure against Hungary, citing a "risk of serious violation" of the European Union's fundamental values, due to the authoritarian excesses observed under the Orbán government.

In April 2022, for the first time since 2010, Viktor Orbán faced a united opposition at the ballot box in a bid to steal his fourth consecutive election. However, his party won the parliamentary elections by 54%.

The year 2023 marks 150 years since the unification of Buda, Óbuda and Pest. To mark the occasion, almost 100 events are being organized and will run until 2024. For example, the Chain Bridge reopens in autumn 2023, the Budapest Marathon welcomes runners from all over the world in October, the History Museum presents a new exhibition, hotels reopen or are inaugurated..

Hungary took over the Presidency of the EU Council from July¹ to December 31.