History History

Driven by the desertification of what is now the Sahara, humans are migrating to the fertile lands of the Nile and the Delta. The first Neolithic structures appear in the Fayoum and the Delta where agriculture and livestock farming flourish. This is the predynastic period. At the end of this period Egypt was divided into two kingdoms: Upper and Lower Egypt.

The two kingdoms were unified under the reign of King Narmer, founder of the First Dynasty. Memphis was founded at the junction of the two kingdoms and remained a major city of the country until the advent of Alexandria in the 4th century BC. The heart of the Egyptian state takes shape: the Delta, the Nile valley up to the first cataract in the south. To the east, what is now the Negev desert, and to the west the arid expanses of the Sahara. The kingdom of the pharaohs will sometimes expand southward (Nubia, the land of Kush) and eastward (the Levant to present-day Turkey) but only temporarily.

Reign of Djoser/Djoser, first king of the 3rd dynasty and the Old Empire. Construction of the step pyramid of Saqqarah. Beginning of the pyramid period.

The period of the Old Kingdom, where the characteristics of Egyptian civilization were formed, is often considered to be its golden age. The canons of Egyptian art took shape and the monumental architecture reached new heights with the pyramids of Giza. The pyramid of Cheops, built around 2560 BC, will remain the highest human construction until the 14th century! The administration is set up. Religious centres dedicated to the various deities of the Egyptian pantheon are formed throughout the country. This organization will last nearly three millennia!

First Intermediate Period. Dismantling of central power in favour of the growing influence of local governors.

Originally from Thebes, Montouhotep II reunified the country. Beginning of the Middle Kingdom. Thebes emerges as a spiritual and political center. Beginning of rock burials in Thebes. Intensification of relations with the Near East. Military expeditions against Nubia.

Second Intermediate Period. Control of the country by a foreign people: the Hyksos.

Victory of Ahmôsis I over the Hyksos. Beginning of the New Kingdom and the 18th dynasty, considered the most glorious of ancient Egypt. Territorial apogee under Thutmes III. Magnificent temples and palaces were built, notably at Thebes and on the west bank of the Nile. The reign of Hatshepsut, one of the few female pharaohs, was marked by her conquests in Syria and Nubia and by her "Temple of Millions of Years" on the west bank of Thebes. Amenhotep III built the Temple of Luxor. The magnificent monuments bear witness to the splendour of this period and the power of its rulers.

Son of Amenhotep III, he succeeded him around 1355BC under the name Amenhotep IV. Quickly, he makes public his veneration of a new god, Aten. He abandons the cult of traditional gods and, above all, of Amun, the major god of the Egyptian pantheon. The arts are strongly transformed under his reign. The representation of the pharaoh himself is particularly fascinating: his androgynous forms and the representation of his face is in total rupture with Egyptian tradition. Nefertiti, his wife, probably enjoyed great power and is known to the general public by her magnificent bust exhibited in Berlin. If historians are divided on his reign, his successors are less so. His name and image are hammered out, erased from history. Considered a heretic, his tomb, sarcophagus and mummy were ransacked. The cult of Amon is re-established.

Ramses I's seizure of power, beginning of the glorious 19th dynasty. The centre of power moves to the east of the Delta where the dynasty originated. Creation of Pi-Ramses, new capital for a mythical pharaoh: Ramses II. His reign of 66 years is marked by an incredible number of constructions! Expansion of the Karnak temple, numerous temples along the Nile and of course, the extraordinary temples of Abu Simbel dedicated to himself and Nefertari, his principal wife. He strengthened the Egyptian hold in the south by asserting his presence in Nubia and in the east with the campaigns in the Near East and the treaty of Qadesh concluded with the Hittites.

20th dynasty and end of the New Empire, marked by the reign of the Ramessides (from Ramses III to Ramses XI). Their reigns marked the erosion of royal power and the progressive loss of Egyptian conquests. Insecurity spread to the Theban region, and the Valley of the Kings was for the first time the victim of mass looting.

Third Intermediate Period, division of the country.

The country is reunited but subjected to several waves of invasions, instability becomes chronic. The Nubians conquer the country. They are pushed south by the Assyrians and the Egyptians regain control of the country. Egypt was conquered by the Achaemenid Persians twice between 525BC and 332BC. This Late Period was a dark period for Egypt but it is interesting to note that all the invaders adopted Egyptian traditions and did not impose any religious or cultural break with the country. This is a sign of the symbolic power that Egypt retains.

Alexandria, the city he founded west of the Delta, became the political centre of the country. It is here that his body is brought back from Babylon after his death.

Advent of the Lagoid dynasty founded by Ptolemy, general of Alexander. Golden age of Alexandria, construction of the lighthouse and library. The city is the intellectual centre of the ancient world and many scholars reside here: Archimedes, Euclid and Eratosthenes in particular.

Defeat of Cleopatra VII and Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium. Egypt becomes a Roman province. Death of Cleopatra, Egypt's last pharaoh.

Supposed foundation of the Church of Alexandria by Evangelist Mark.

Period of prosperity in Egypt. Foundation by Emperor Hadrian of Antinoupolis of the name of his lover Antinous, who died drowning in the waters of the river. Period of the magnificent funerary portraits known as Fayoum.

Alexandria became an important centre of Christianity with the establishment of the Alexandria Theological School.

Destruction of the Serapeum and all the pagan temples of Alexandria by Theodosius I. Theodosius I endeavoured to weaken paganism in favour of Christianity.

Death of Theodosius and division of the Roman Empire. Egypt now belongs to the Eastern or Byzantine Empire.

Birth of the Coptic Orthodox Church following the Council of Chalcedon.

Definitive closure of the Temple of Isis.

Egypt is controlled by the Sassanian Persians.

Arab conquest by Amr Ibn el As. Foundation of Fostat which prefigures Cairo and which is organized around the mosque of Amr, the first mosque built on the African continent. The conquest - easy - is helped by the local Coptic populations, in open conflict with the Byzantines.

Umayyad rulers ruling from Damascus. Slow Islamization of the country, the Arabic language is gradually establishing itself as the language of government and communication. Coptic revolts against new taxes.

The Abbasids are taking over. Baghdad, their capital, becomes the political and intellectual centre of the Muslim world. Egypt is on the fringes of this world and does not yet play a decisive role. It was probably in the ninth century that the Muslim population outnumbered the Christian population.

Ahmad Ibn Tulun, a Turkish mercenary, takes power. Foundation of his dynasty, independent of Abbasid power. This foreshadowed the loss of Abbasid authority to Turkish mercenaries, whom Ahmad Ibn Tulun used for protection and military campaigns. The Ibn Tulun mosque in Cairo, with its unique architecture and distinctive minaret, remains from this period.

Egypt conquered by the Fatimids from Ifriqiyya (now Tunisia). Shiite dynasty ruling a state that extended over a large part of North Africa, the Near East and part of the Arabian Peninsula along the Red Sea. Egypt was now independent of the Abbasid caliphate.

Foundation of Cairo by the Fatimids, north of Fostat. Cairo and Egypt become the cultural and political centre of the Islamic world. Cairo is then the seat of Shiite Fatimid power. The Egyptians, mostly Sunni, lived mainly in the nearby city of Fostat.

Foundation of the University of El Azhar and its mosque. A Shiite religious centre under the Fatimids, it will become one of the most important Sunni theological knowledge institutions in the Islamic world.

Saladin seized power and established his own dynasty, the Ayyubids. Egypt returns under the Abbasid rule. Construction of the Citadel. Wars against the Crusaders ravaging the Near East. Reconquest of Jerusalem in 1187.

Shajar Ed-Dur is a slave of Turkish or Armenian origin with a unique destiny! She became the favourite and then the wife of one of the last Ayyubid sultans, Al Salih Ayyub, and she will have a determining role in the destiny of the country. Her husband died when the country was attacked by the Seventh Crusade. The Franks, led by Louis IX (future Saint Louis) have captured Damietta and are approaching Mansourah. Shajar Ed Dur hides the sultan's death to allow his heir, Turanshah, to take the throne without conflict. After the assassination of Turanshah, the Ayyubid dynasty ends. The Mamelukes, who now control the country, appoint her as sultan and commander of the believers. However, the Abbasids refuse to recognise her sovereignty and it is the Mameluk Aybak who will take power. Shajar Ed Dur married her, but her ambitions were intact. After 7 years of reign, she had the first Mamluk sultan assassinated, but she in turn was assassinated by his successor.

The Mamelukes are taking over. Great builders, they enlarged the city considerably and built many mosques and madrasas. Egypt established itself as the political and intellectual centre of the Islamic world, especially after the Mongol invasions and the sack of Baghdad in 1258. The first dynasty to rule Egypt were the Bahrite Mamelukes, of Turkish Kiptchaic origin.

Reign of Sultan Baybars I. He saves Mamluk Egypt from Crusader and Mongolian perils. As a fine diplomat, he establishes friendly relations with the Golden Horde. He is the character of a traditional epic novel very popular throughout the region.

Battle of Ain Jalut, the Mamelukes stop the Mongol armies in the Middle East.

Construction of the Madrasa Mosque of Sultan Hassan, a masterpiece of Mamluk art.

Sultan Barquq takes power and establishes the Mameluk Burjite dynasty, of Circassian origin. They settle at the Citadel (the tower, burj in Arabic).

Alliance with the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I against Tamerlan who threatens Mamluk Syria.

Famine and plague ravaged Egypt, which saw its population decrease drastically.

Long reign of Sultan Qaytbay. A great builder, he left his mark not only on Cairo but also on Syria, Jerusalem and Mecca.

Battle of Ridaniya, death of the last Mamluk sultan. Egypt becomes part of the Ottoman Empire.

Long clashes between Mamluk factions for control of the country. The alternation of power between the Fakariyya and the Kasimiya is most often violent. In 1718, it is the Fakariyya that definitively imposed itself.

Bonaparte's Egypt expedition. 55,000 French soldiers and sailors land in Egypt and drive out the Mamelukes who administer the country for the Ottoman sultan. Many scientists study the country and publish the Description of Egypt. Beaten by the English allied with the Ottomans, the troops left Egypt in 1801.

Mohammed Ali, a general of Albanian origin, is appointed pasha of Egypt. He made Egypt independent of the Ottoman Empire, founded his own dynasty and initiated a cycle of decisive modernizing reforms.

Massacre of the Mamelukes, end of their domination over the country.

Mohammed Ali came to the aid of the Ottoman Empire in the Hejaz and Greece.

Conquest of Sudan and foundation of Khartoum.

War against the Ottoman Empire, Egyptian troops conquer the Middle East and approach Anatolia. Only the intervention of the Western powers saved the Ottoman Empire.

Beginning of the reign of Ismaïl, Mohammed Ali's grandson. He receives the title of khedive, formalizing the dynasty of Mohammed Ali. Creation of the Egyptian Museum by Auguste Mariette and construction of downtown Cairo.

Inauguration of the Suez Canal. The British, taking advantage of the colossal indebtedness of the Egyptian state, buy up the majority of the shares and take over the canal.

Creation of the Public Debt Fund, which allows the country's foreign creditors to direct its economy.

Paris and London force Ismail to resign and replace him with Tewfiq.

Bombardment of Alexandria by the British fleet. Beginning of British guardianship, troops stationed throughout the country.

Inauguration of the first Aswan dam.

Egyptian nationalists, led by Saad Zaghloul, are leading the protest against the British protectorate. In 1922 independence is declared but the British retain de facto control over the Suez Canal and a strong influence on the country's politics.

Victory of the Wafd party in the legislative elections. The liberal and secular party of Saad Zaghloul will dominate Egyptian political life until the end of the 1930s.

Creation of the Muslim Brotherhood by Hassan al-Banna. The party opposes the westernization of the country and militates for a re-Islamization.

The British evacuate Cairo, Alexandria and the Delta in the face of violent protests by the Egyptian people.

First Arab-Israeli war and defeat of the Arab forces. 10,000 Egyptian soldiers are mobilized.

Social unrest reaches its climax. The Muslim Brotherhood assassinates the chief of police and the prime minister. Hassan al-Banna is himself killed in 1949.

Guerrilla warfare against English forces, especially in the canal area. English forces massacred about forty policemen on 25 January 1952.

Coup d'état of the "Free Officers" against the monarchy. King Farouk is exiled.

Launch of the agrarian reform that limits land ownership and redistributes surpluses.

Dissolution of political parties. Creation of a single party and proclamation of the Republic.

Gamal Abdel Nasser oust Mohamed Naguib from the presidency and becomes the undisputed master of Egypt. Dissolution of the Muslim Brotherhood.

Nasser announces the nationalisation of the Suez Canal.

Tripartite aggression by France, the United Kingdom and Israel against Egypt. Militarily victorious, the aggressors must withdraw after the disavowal of the United States and the Soviet Union. Major political victory for Nasser.

Foreigners and many Jews were forced to leave the country after the war. Cosmopolitan cities are emptying: Alexandria, Port Said, Ismail... Foreign-owned businesses are nationalized.

Egypt and Syria link up under the United Arab Republic, an attempt at a pan-Arab state. The experiment fails after 3 years with the withdrawal of Syria.

Repression of the Muslim Brotherhood. Execution of Sayed Qotb, the movement's leading intellectual. He will give a new dimension to jihad through the notion of hâkimiya that he develops in his writings in prison.

Israel, feeling threatened, takes the initiative of what will become the Six Day War. The Egyptian air force is wiped out on the ground on the first day, the debacle is total. Israeli occupation begins in the Sinai Peninsula.

Opening of the Aswan High Dam, built with the help of the Soviets. Lake Nasser is flooded, swallowing up Egyptian Nubia. UNESCO's efforts save many ancient remains from the flooding, including the Abu Simbel temples.

When Nasser dies, millions of Egyptians follow the funeral procession through the streets of Cairo.

Anwar Sadat comes to power and announces the infitah, his policy of economic openness, which marks a break with Nasser's socialist policy. This liberalization will disrupt the economic and social situation of the country in the years that follow. Sadat begins a rapprochement with Washington and moves away from the former Soviet allies.

Yom Kippur War, the Egyptians cross the Suez Canal and advance rapidly into the Sinai. Israel regains the upper hand in the days that follow but international pressure forces the belligerents to sign a ceasefire.

Sadat goes to Jerusalem and gives a speech before the Knesset. He pledges to sign a peace agreement on condition that Israel returns Sinai and recognizes the right to a Palestinian state.

Signing of the Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel. A peace agreement is signed the following year and the Sinai Peninsula is returned to Egypt in 1982.

Sadat is murdered by a small Islamic group. Hosni Mubarak, then Vice-President, becomes President of the Republic.

A series of terrorist attacks targeting the Coptic community and tourist sites. The tourism industry is lastingly affected.

Re-election of Hosni Mubarak and massive election of the Muslim Brotherhood to the People's Assembly.

Against a backdrop of economic difficulties and ongoing police repression, a protest movement was formed in December 2010. In January, the revolutionary movement ignites the whole country. The watchwords are freedom, social justice and dignity. Faced with pressure from the streets, Hosni Mubarak left power on 11 February. The transition is ensured by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces until the 2012 elections.

Presidency of Mohamed Morsi, member of the Brotherhood of the Muslim Brotherhood. He is the first civilian president to be democratically elected. He will be deposed by the army in a context of massive discontent. The Tamarrod (rebellion) movement challenging the Brothers' regime first expressed itself online and then was one of the instigators of the monster demonstrations of 30 June and the fall of the president on 3 July.

After a few months in a transitional government charged with drafting a new constitution, President Abdel Fatah Al-Sissi was elected to the presidency. A former Defense Minister under Mr. Morsi, he has imposed authoritarian governance. His record includes thousands of prisoners and missing persons throughout the country.

Al-Sissi was re-elected with 97% of the votes. He expanded the role of the army, which took control of most of the country's economic sectors, but also the fields of culture and information, imposing strict control over the media.

Egypt takes over the leadership of the African Union for one year.

Referendum validating the revision of the Constituion: Al-Sissi gives himself the option of remaining President until 2030.

Egypt's population passed the 100 million mark in February.

A year celebrating two hundred years since the deciphering of hieroglyphics and one hundred years since the discovery of Tutankhamen's tomb. Numerous events are held in Egypt and abroad to celebrate the culture of the pharaohs.