A mosaic of identities and languages
Arab identity, complex and multifaceted, is often summed up in a vague and irrelevant ethnic code. What single ethnic origin could unite countries as diverse as Mauritania, Morocco, Lebanon, Egypt and Iraq? What's more, Egypt has been conquered many times by "foreigners": Hyksos, Arabs, Turks, French, English... All have left their mark - cultural, genetic, linguistic - on the land of Egypt.
The issues surrounding the representation of identities are complex and must be approached with full knowledge of the facts. The terms we use here are therefore the terms that the populations themselves use to designate themselves.
Egyptians make up 99% of the country's population. Whether Muslim or Christian, their ancestors have lived on Egyptian soil for many centuries. Their mother tongue is Arabic. From time to time, as an expression of a minoritý that sometimes struggles to find its feet, the Copts declare themselves to be the true Egyptians, those "from before the Arab conquest". However, this is to pay little heed to the marriages that have taken place since, between Muslims and Christians, Arab conquerors and "indigenous" peoples, as well as conversions. If Egypt is referred to as an Arab country, it is above all in reference to the language that governs the majority of exchanges and communications. Egyptian Arabic is spoken by the entire population of the country, with an immense diversity of accents! Cairo's distinctive accent differs greatly from that of Aswan, Luxor, Alexandria or Damietta. To say that every city has its own accent is no exaggeration. These changes affect the very pronunciation of certain letters. What is pronounced "j" in Luxor is pronounced "gu" in Cairo; a letter that is not pronounced in Cairo or Alexandria is pronounced "gu" in Upper Egypt... And of course, local expressions and cultural references punctuate a rich and varied language.
The Nubians are Egypt's largest ethnic minority. More than an ethnic group, they claim to belong to a people in their own right, with a different language and a particular culture. Historically, Nubia stretches from the Nile's first cataract, at Aswan, and along the Nile to what is now Sudan's capital, Khartoum. However, Nubia is multi-faceted, and at least five types of Nubian language are spoken. The demarcation of borders and the submergence of Egyptian Nubia by the waters of Lake Nasser have separated the Egyptian Nubians from the Southern Nubians. They claim the heritage of a thousand-year-old civilization, always in contact with Egypt: sometimes vassals, sometimes neighbors. They also ruled Egypt, as in the XXVth dynasty. Mainly settled in the region of Aswan and Kom Ombo since the construction of the high dam, the rural exodus has not spared them and many now live in Cairo or the Delta. In Cairo, they have often been favored for jobs as servants and janitors for wealthy families, reassured by their reputation for honesty... Nubians are victims of discrimination linked to their skin color or cultural practices. Although the most widespread prejudices in Egyptian society are sometimes seen as "positive", they nevertheless have a considerable impact on relations with the majority. Paternalism and the contempt that goes with it are not uncommon. Their mother tongue was Nubian, until the displacement of 1964. However, Arabic was spoken by many, especially the men who maintained economic relations with the populations of the north of the country. Since then, the use of these languages has declined sharply, mainly due to the relocation of populations to less isolated, predominantly Egyptian areas. Kom Ombo, Aswan and the villages along the Nile up to the dam are now the center of Nubian culture. Some are trying to preserve and revitalize their cultural heritage, whether architectural, artisanal or musical - often with great success! A symbol of the recent transformations in Nubian culture, singer Mohamed Mounir has enjoyed immense success in Egypt and abroad. His music is often marked by the sounds and instruments of his native region.
In the north-west of the country, a few kilometers from the Libyan border, the Berbers of Egypt populate the Siwa oases. They number between 20 and 30,000 and speak Siwi, a Berber language closely related to Moroccan Rifain. Long isolated from the central Egyptian state, Siwa could be considered independent until Mohammed Ali's army occupied the oasis and imposed the influence of the young Egyptian state. It wasn't until the 1990s that the Siwis were linked to the rest of the country by a tarmac road. Since then, a definite process of "Egyptianization" has taken place, although no study has analyzed its extent. Like the Nubians, most Siwis are bilingual in Arabic. Although Egyptian institutions have a foothold in the oasis, the majority of the population is still governed by traditional tribal institutions, as is the case in certain regions of Upper Egypt. Justice is dispensed by the village chief or other legitimate figures. State justice only intervenes in cases of crime.
Egypt, along with Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Israel, is one of the few countries with a large Bedouin population. According to 2007 figures, they number 380,000 and live mainly in the Sinai Peninsula. They speak a distinct Arabic dialect. Bedouin identity does not refer to ethnicity, but to membership of historical Bedouin tribes, creating a complex and shifting identity. Tribes generally refer to a common ancestor, often from the Arabian Peninsula, who gives the tribe its name. The Bedouin identity was marked by a nomadic lifestyle and the breeding of goats, sheep and camelids. Since the 20th century, however, their societies have undergone major upheavals, and most Egyptian Bedouins are now semi-nomadic or sedentary. Their integration into the Egyptian state system is difficult because of the difficulty of combining the Bedouin way of life with the constraints and duties imposed by modern states and their borders. This partly explains the numerous revolts against the central state that have shaken the Sinai for several decades.
Southern Egypt is home to a number of nomadic peoples, mainly between the Red Sea and the banks of the Nile and Lake Nasser. The Bedja, in particular, inhabit a territory straddling Egypt, Sudan and Eritrea. They number over a million in Egypt and speak Bedja, a language of Cushitic origin from the Horn of Africa.
Land of refuge, emigration and recent population movements
Egypt, close to many conflict zones, hosts a large number of refugees and asylum seekers. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Egypt has welcomed victims of all regional conflicts. Fleeing the Ottoman Empire, many Armenians found refuge in Egypt from 1915 onwards. Some studies estimate the number of Armenians at 40,000 in 1952, many of whom left Egypt after the fall of the monarchy. From 1948 onwards, some 50,000 Palestinians left their homeland for Egypt in the face of the war that followed Israel's declaration of independence, most of whom still live there. More recently, many Iraqis have left their country in the grip of endless war and are heading for Egypt. Syrians now make up the bulk of the refugee contingent in Egypt. They have opened numerous restaurants, mainly in Cairo, and are integrating despite harsh living conditions and difficult access to regularization. Sudanese, Ethiopians and Eritreans are also numerous, mainly in Cairo. Egypt is home to a large number of people fleeing conflict or extreme poverty. However, the Egyptian state provides only a minimum service, and it is mainly UN agencies that provide institutional support for refugees.
But Egypt has also experienced internal population displacements that have turned many areas upside down. The rural exodus obviously led to an explosion in the population of urban areas from the 1960s onwards, but conflicts have also led to major displacements. Many inhabitants of towns in the Suez Canal zone flocked to Cairo and the Delta during the conflicts that affected these areas in 1956, 1967 and 1973. Port Said in particular was the scene of heavy fighting in 1956 and 1967. The entire population was also evacuated before the 1973 war! Many of these internally displaced people settled in the informal suburbs of Cairo, which were flourishing at the time. In 1964, 50,000 Nubians were displaced by the construction of the Aswan High Dam, mainly to Kom Ombo and Aswan, but also to Cairo, Alexandria and the rest of the country. In recent years, many inhabitants of northern Sinai have taken to the road of internal exile to escape jihadist groups and the fighting that often rages between the government and armed groups. According to some scientists, as many as six million people could be displaced by rising sea levels. Indeed, Alexandria and its surrounding area are particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels due to global warming.
The Nubians and their struggle
50,000 Nubians were displaced in 1964, leaving their homeland forever, submerged by the waters of the Nile, held back by the construction of dams. Since then, Nubian culture, and especially its language, has been diluted in the "global" Egyptian culture. However, and since 1964, activists have been fighting for the preservation of the cultural and economic rights of Nubians, including the descendants of those displaced in 1964. Recently, new generations are making new demands and reactivating Nubian activism. Indeed, several demonstrations have taken place in recent years for a right of return of Nubians to the shores of the lake, a right enshrined in the new Egyptian constitution of 2014. However, the army continues to seize land for gigantic agricultural projects, de facto prohibiting the return of the population. These demonstrations are an exception in the current political context of violent repression. Arrested in September 2017 after a demonstration for the right of return, Nubian activist Gamal Sourour died in his cell following a hunger strike.
